17th Amendment: The 17th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1913, established the direct election of United States Senators by the people of the states, replacing the previous system where senators were chosen by state legislatures. Advice and Consent: A constitutional power of the United States Senate to approve or reject treaties negotiated and appointments made by the President. This power is outlined in Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution. Baker v. Carr: A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1962) that established the principle of "one person, one vote." This decision required legislative districts to be apportioned based on population, ensuring more equal representation. Bicameral: A legislative system with two separate chambers or houses. The United States Congress, for example, is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Bipartisan: Involving the cooperation or agreement of members of two political parties, usually with the aim of reaching a compromise or consensus. Cloture: A parliamentary procedure used to end a filibuster and bring a legislative debate to a vote. In the U.S. Senate, it requires a three-fifths supermajority (60 out of 100 senators). Conference Committee: A temporary joint committee of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate created to resolve differences in legislation passed by both chambers. Delegate Model: A model of representation in which elected officials are expected to act according to the expressed wishes of their constituents. Divided Government: A situation in which different political parties control different branches or chambers of the government. Filibuster: A tactic used in the U.S. Senate, where a senator speaks for an extended period to delay or block a vote on a bill. Gerrymandering: The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or group. How a Bill Becomes a Law: The process through which a proposed law (bill) goes through legislative chambers, including committee review, debate, and voting, before being sent to the executive for approval. Joint Committees: Committees composed of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate, often formed to address specific issues. Logrolling: A practice in which two or more parties agree to support each other's goals or interests. Omnibus Bill: A single piece of legislation that addresses a wide range of issues or topics. Partisan: Adhering to a specific political party and its principles. Politico Model: A model of representation in which elected officials act as trustees or delegates depending on the issue. Pork-Belly Spending: Government spending that benefits a specific constituency or district, often with the aim of securing political support. President of the Senate: The Vice President of the United States, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate but can only vote in the case of a tie. President Pro Tempore: The senator who presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President. Reapportionment: The reallocation of seats in a legislative body, often based on changes in population. Redistricting: The redrawing of electoral district boundaries, typically in response to population changes. Revenue Bills: Legislation that involves taxation or government spending. Such bills must originate in the House of Representatives. Select Committee: A committee established for a specific purpose and usually for a limited duration. Senate Majority Leader: The leader of the majority party in the Senate, responsible for managing the legislative agenda. Shaw v. Reno: A U.S. Supreme Court case (1993) that set limits on the use of race in drawing congressional districts. Size, Terms, and Requirements of House and Senate: The House of Representatives has 435 members with two-year terms, while the Senate has 100 members with six-year terms. Requirements for both chambers vary, with the House requiring U.S. citizenship for at least seven years and the Senate nine years. Standing Committee: A permanent committee in a legislative body that focuses on a specific policy area. Trustee Model: A model of representation in which elected officials use their best judgment to make decisions. War Powers Act: A U.S. law passed in 1973 that limits the president's ability to commit U.S. forces to armed conflict without the consent of Congress.

10th Amendment

Reserves powers not delegated to federal government to states or people

14th Amendment

Grants equal protection under the law to all citizens

3/5 Compromise

Counts each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation

Advice and Consent

Senate's authority to approve or reject presidential appointments and treaties

Anti-federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution concerned about federal government power

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. constitution creating a weak central government

Bicameral

Having two legislative chambers

Commerce Clause

Grants Congress authority to regulate commerce among states

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by federal and state governments

Controlled Substance Act

Federal legislation classifying and regulating controlled substances

Elastic Clause/Implied Powers

Grants Congress authority to make laws necessary to carry out enumerated powers

Electoral College

System for electing the President based on state electors

Elite democracy

Political system with power concentrated in a small

Enumerated powers

Specific powers granted to federal government by the Constitution

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Federal agency regulating and protecting the environment

Exclusive powers

Powers granted exclusively to federal or state governments

Factions

Groups or political parties competing for influence in government

Federal Grants

Funds provided by federal government to state and local governments

Federalism

System of government dividing power between federal and state governments

Federalists

Supporters of U.S. Constitution and strong federal government

Great Compromise

Established bicameral legislature with representation based on population and equal representation

Impeachment

Process of charging and potentially removing a government official from office

Initiative

Process allowing citizens to propose and vote on new laws

Limited government

Principle of restricted government powers and individual rights

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

U.S. law requiring federal agencies to assess environmental impact

Natural law

Theory of ethical principles inherent in human nature

Participatory democracy

Political system with active citizen participation in decision-making

Pluralist democracy

Political system with multiple groups competing for influence

Pocket Veto

Presidential veto achieved by taking no action on a bill

Popular sovereignty

Political authority belonging to the people through voting and participation

Ratification

Formal approval or acceptance of a constitution

Referendum

Direct vote by the public on a specific issue or law

Republicanism

Form of government where people elect representatives to make decisions

Separation of Powers

Division of government into distinct branches with separate powers

Shay's Rebellion

Armed uprising in Massachusetts protesting economic injustices

Supremacy Clause

Establishes federal laws and Constitution as supreme law of the land

Veto

Power to reject a bill