Chemistry Regents 2024

Solid

Definite Volume and Definite Shape

Liquid

Definite volume but no definite shape

Gas

No definite volume or definite shape

Ideal Gas

High temperature and low pressure

Thompson

Discovered electrons (Plum Pudding Model)

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

1. Most of the atom is empty space

2. Most of the mass of the atom is in the nucleus, which is small and positively charged

Endothermic

Absorbs heat (Melting/fusion, evaporation, and sublimation)

Exothermic

Releases heat (Freezing, Condensation, and deposition)

What happens when an electron becomes excited

It absorbs energy and moves to a higher energy state

What happens when an excited-state electron returns to the ground state

It releases energy in the form of light and moves to a lower energy state

Isotope

Atoms that are the same element but have different mass numbers

Metals

• -Most of the elements

• -Conductible (heat and electricity)

• -Has High Luster

• -Ductile

• -Malleable

Metalloids

Has properties of both metals and nonmetals

Nonmetals

Poor Conductors and brittle

Ionization Energy

Energy required to remove an electron from an atom

Electronegativity

Ability to attract electrons

Allotropes

Same element but different structural formula

Ionic Bonds

-Metal and Nonmetal

-Metal loses/gives electrons to nonmetal

-High melting and boiling points

-Low vapor pressure

-Conduct electricity as liquid, not solid

-Always a polar bond because greater than 1.7

Covalent Bonds

• -Between two nonmetals

• -Polar, Nonpolar, and coordinate

• -END is less than 1.7

• -If END is greater than 0.4, bond is polar

• -Nonpolar covalent share electrons evenly

• -Polar covalent has a slightly positive side and slightly negative side

• -Low melting and boiling points

IMAF

The stronger the IMAF, the higher the Boiling point

Hydrate

A compound that contains water crystallized within its structure (BASICALLY JUST WATER)

Solute

A substance that is being dissolved

Solvent

The substance that is dissolving the solute

Is water polar or nonpolar

Water is POLAR!!!

Unsaturated Solution

There can be more solute to be dissolved a solution

Saturated Solution

The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved has been dissolved

Supersaturated Solution

More than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved is dissolved

Factors that affect Solubility

1. Temperature

   • - As temperature increases, Solubility increases

2. Pressure (ONLY FOR GASES)

   • - As pressure increases, solubility increases

How does the concentration of a solute affect the freezing point and boiling point.

The freezing point goes down and the boiling point goes up.

Catalyst

Speeds up a reaction by lowering the activation energy

Nature of reaction (In terms of rate of reaction)

• -Ionic reactions occur very fast

• -Covalent reactions occur very slow (due to it requiring a lot of energy)

Factors affecting the rate of reaction

1. Temperature

   • - The higher the temperature, the faster the rate

2. Concentration

   • - More concentration = Faster rate

3. Surface area

   • - More surface area exposed = Faster rate

Exothermic Potential Energy Diagram

Product side is LOWER than the reactant side!!!!!!!!

Endothermic Potential Energy diagram

Product side is HIGHER than the reactant side

Equilibrium

• -When the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction

• -The Concentrations are constant and they are NOT equal

• -It is dynamic (constantly changing/fluctuating)

Stress

• -Any change in pressure, temperature, or concentration put upon a system at equilibrium

• -When a stress is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift in order to relieve that stress and reach a new equilibrium

Shift to the right (Towards the products)

-Rate of the forward reaction will increase

-Favors Products

Shift to the left (Towards Reactants)

-Rate of reverse reaction is increasing

-Favors reactants

Pressure (in terms of stress)

-Only affects gases

-Does not affect gases if there is an equal amount of molecules on both sides

Entropy

• -Disorder/randomness

• -Nature tends to proceed to a state of greater entropy (It loves disorder)

Enthalpy

• -Energy

• -Nature tends to proceed to a state of lower enthalpy (It hates energy)

Fermentation

Sugar makes alcohol

Substitution

• -Taking an alkane and substituting a halogen

• -The product is a halide

Combustion

A hydrocarbon in oxygen will burn to create carbon dioxide and water

Addition

We take an alkene or alkyne, break the multiple bond, and add a halogen to the broken bond

Polymerization

We take a lot of small molecules and make a really big one called a polymer

Esterfication

An organic acid and alcohol form an ester and water

Saponification

Fat and base makes water and soap

Voltaic cell

-Converts chemical energy to electrical energy

-Spontaneous redox reaction

-Anode is negative

Electrolytic Cell

-Anode is positive

-Electrical energy to chemical energy

-nonspontaneous