Psych test 2

Personality Disorder

a mental health condition characterized by enduring, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that significantly deviate from cultural expectations

Personality Disorders — General Traits

Typically lifelong and highly resistant to treatment; diagnoses are somewhat controversial (symptoms overlap and criteria can be subjective) and are generally thought to be rooted in childhood experiences.

Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric)

Personality disorder cluster marked by odd or eccentric thinking/behavior; includes Paranoid

Cluster B (Dramatic/Emotional/Erratic)

Personality disorder cluster marked by dramatic

Cluster C (Anxious/Fearful)

Personality disorder cluster marked by anxious or fearful thinking/behavior; includes Avoidant

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Cluster A disorder marked by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others' motives.

Schizoid Personality Disorder

Cluster A disorder marked by detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Cluster A disorder marked by acute discomfort in close relationships

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Cluster B disorder marked by disregard for and violation of others' rights

Borderline Personality Disorder

Cluster B disorder marked by instability in relationships

Histrionic Personality Disorder

Cluster B disorder marked by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Cluster B disorder marked by grandiosity want people to like them

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Cluster C disorder marked by social inhibition

Dependent Personality Disorder

Cluster C disorder marked by an excessive need to be taken care of

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)

Cluster C disorder marked by preoccupation with orderliness

Psychopath vs. Sociopath

Both are popular/colloquial terms for the same DSM diagnosis

Risk Factors for Personality Disorders

Genetics (heritability)

ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)

A lifelong developmental disorder marked by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning across multiple settings (e.g.

Inattention (ADHD)

Difficulty sustaining focus

Hyperactivity (ADHD)

Excessive movement

ADHD — Three Subtypes

Predominantly Inattentive Presentation

ADD ("Attention-Deficit Disorder")

Outdated everyday/colloquial term for what the DSM now classifies as ADHD

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A lifelong developmental disorder marked by persistent deficits in social communication/interaction (Criterion A) and restricted

ASD — Diagnosis Trends

Diagnoses have risen substantially in recent decades and are diagnosed far more often in boys than in girls.

ASD Criterion A

Persistent deficits in social communication and interaction — e.g.

ASD Criterion B

Restricted

ASD Levels 1–3

Indicate the amount of support needed: Level 1 = requires support; Level 2 = requires substantial support; Level 3 = requires very substantial support (e.g.

Asperger Syndrome

Former diagnostic label (also called "high-functioning autism") for what is now classified as ASD Level 1.

ASD — Causes/Risk Factors

Exact cause is still unknown; involves a genetic component along with risk factors such as older parental age

Treatment Approaches

Psychological disorders can be treated with medication (psychopharmacology)

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor (MD) who can diagnose disorders

Psychologist

Holds a doctoral degree (PhD/PsyD); can diagnose and provide therapy but

Clinical/Licensed Social Worker

Holds a master's degree (e.g.

Counselor / Therapist

Often a master's-level mental health professional (e.g.

Psychiatric Nurse

A nurse with specialized psychiatric training who can assess patients and

Psychoanalytic Therapy

Founded by Sigmund Freud; goal is to bring unconscious conflicts (often rooted in childhood) into conscious awareness; the therapist acts as a neutral

Free Association

Psychoanalytic technique in which the client says whatever comes to mind without censorship

Dream Analysis

Psychoanalytic technique that interprets the symbolic content of dreams to uncover unconscious desires and conflicts.

Behavior Therapy

Therapy based on principles of classical and operant conditioning; goal is to directly change maladaptive behaviors rather than explore insight; the therapist acts more like a trainer/coach.

Systematic Desensitization

Behavior therapy technique that gradually and progressively exposes a client to a feared stimulus while pairing it with relaxation

Flooding

Behavior therapy technique that exposes a client to a feared stimulus at full intensity all at once (rather than gradually)

Flooding vs. Systematic Desensitization

Both are exposure-based behavior therapy techniques for anxiety disorders; systematic desensitization is gradual and paired with relaxation

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Therapy combining cognitive and behavioral techniques to identify and change maladaptive/distorted thought patterns and behaviors.

Cognitive Distortion

An irrational

ABC Model

CBT framework: A = Activating event

Humanistic Therapy

Founded by Carl Rogers; emphasizes personal growth

Non-Directive (Client-Centered) Therapy

Humanistic approach in which the therapist avoids giving direct advice or interpretation

Unconditional Positive Regard

Complete acceptance and support of a person regardless of what they say or do; a core condition of humanistic/client-centered therapy.

Psychopharmacology

The use of medication to treat psychological disorders; not all patients respond positively

Antidepressants (e.g.

SSRIs)

Anti-Anxiety Medications (e.g.

Benzodiazepines)

Antipsychotics

Primarily treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders; work by blocking dopamine receptors; common side effects include drowsiness

Mood Stabilizers (e.g.

Lithium)

Stimulants

Primarily treat ADHD by increasing dopamine/norepinephrine activity to improve focus and reduce impulsivity; common side effects include appetite loss and sleep difficulty.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

A treatment in which a brief electrical current induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; used for severe

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Associative Learning

Learning that occurs when an organism forms connections (associations) between stimuli

Classical Conditioning

A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after repeatedly being paired with a stimulus that already produces that response.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning while studying dogs' salivary reflexes.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no relevant/reliable response before conditioning occurs (e.g.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning (e.g.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The naturally occurring

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The formerly neutral stimulus that

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g.

Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus (bell

Little Albert Study (Watson)

John B. Watson (with Rosalie Rayner) paired a neutral white rat (NS) with a loud

Behaviorism

A school of psychology

Acquisition

The initial stage of classical conditioning

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Extinction as New Learning

Extinction does not erase the original CS–UCS association; it reflects the formation of a new

Operant Conditioning

A type of associative learning in which the likelihood of a voluntary behavior is increased or decreased based on its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves involuntary

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who pioneered the study of operant conditioning using the "Skinner box."

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)

A controlled chamber used to study operant conditioning

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive/unpleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive/unpleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to decrease that behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior in order to decrease that behavior.

Most Effective Method for Learning New Behavior

Positive reinforcement is generally considered the most effective method for teaching or establishing a new behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs; produces behavior that is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.

Fixed Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses or amount of time required for reinforcement is predictable/constant.

Variable Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses or amount of time required for reinforcement changes unpredictably around an average.

Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered based on the amount of time that has passed.

Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered based on the number of responses made.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered after a set

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses that varies around an average (e.g.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a set

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating others

Modeling

The process of demonstrating a behavior that is then imitated by an observer.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who studied observational learning

Bobo Doll Study

Bandura had children observe an adult model acting aggressively (or non-aggressively) toward an inflatable Bobo doll. Children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior afterward

Violent Media Research — Key Takeaways

Studies consistently find an association between exposure to violent media and increased aggressive thoughts

Three Stages/Elements of Memory

Encoding

Encoding

The process of converting sensory information into a form the brain can process; encoded information moves from sensory input into short-term/working memory (and potentially on into long-term memory).

Storage

The stage of memory in which encoded information is retained/maintained over time.