AP Bio Unit 1 Study Set

Organic Molecules

molecules that contain carbon and usually hydrogen

Condensation (dehydration) reaction

chemical reaction where two molecules bond together by removing a water molecule

Unsaturated fatty acid

fatty acid with one or more double bonds, usually liquid at room temperature

Tertiary structure

complex, 3D shape of a protein chain caused by side group interactions

Hydrocarbon

organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen

Hydrolysis

chemical reaction where a large molecule is broken apart by adding water

Phospholipid

lipid with a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, forming cell membranes

Quaternary structure

overall structure resulting from two or more folded protein chains joining together

Isomers

molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures

Monomer

single, basic building block molecule

Steroids

lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

Denaturation

process where a protein unravels and loses its natural shape and function

Enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other

Polymer

large, complex chain made of many repeating monomers linked together

Cholesterol

type of steroid that acts as a structural component in animal cell membranes

Chaperonin

protein molecule that assists in the proper folding of other proteins

Functional groups

specific groups of atoms attached to carbon skeletons that give unique chemical properties

Monosaccharide

simplest form of sugar (a monomer), such as glucose

Protein

complex molecule made of folded polypeptide chains used for cell functions

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

double-stranded nucleic acid molecule that stores genetic information

Hydroxyl group

oxygen and hydrogen atom bonded together

Di or polysaccharide

sugar made of two or many monosaccharides linked together

Polypeptide

long, unbranched chain of amino acids

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

single-stranded nucleic acid that helps carry out DNA instructions

Carboxyl group

carbon double-bonded to oxygen and single-bonded to a hydroxyl group (-COOH)

Glycosidic linkage

specific type of bond that connects monosaccharides together into complex carbohydrates

Amino acid

building block (monomer) of proteins

Nucleotide

building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base

Amino group

nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogens

Lipids

group of hydrophobic molecules, including fats, oils, and steroids

Peptide bonds

specific covalent bonds that link amino acids together

Purines

nitrogenous bases with a double-ring structure (Adenine and Guanine)

Phosphate group

phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygens

Fatty acids

long hydrocarbon chains attached to a carboxyl group

Protein folding

physical process by which a protein chain bends and twists into its 3D shape

Pyrimidines

nitrogenous bases with a single-ring structure (Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil)

Methyl group

carbon bonded to three hydrogens

Glycerol

small, 3-carbon alcohol that acts as the backbone for fats

Conformation

overall 3D shape or structure of a protein

Double helix

physical, spiral staircase shape of a DNA molecule

Macromolecules

giant molecules made of thousands of atoms, divided into four main types

Saturated fatty acid

fatty acid with only single bonds between carbons, solid at room temperature

Primary structure

unique sequence of amino acids in a protein chain

Antiparallel

structural property of DNA where the two strands run in opposite directions

CHNOPS

acronym for Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

Secondary structure

initial coiling or folding of the amino acid chain

Nitrogenous bases (ACGTU)

information-carrying part of a nucleotide: Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine, and Uracil

How does cohesion make life on Earth possible?

water molecules sticking to each other, allows surface tension and helps plants transport water upward

How does adhesion make life on Earth possible?

water molecules sticking to other substances, helps water stick to cell walls, helping in capillary formation

How does high specific heat capacity make life on Earth possible?

water can absorb a lot of heat before changing temperature, helping to balance Earth's climate and organisms' internal temperatures

How does expansion upon freezing make life on Earth possible?

ice is less dense than liquid water, so it floats, insulates aquatic life in winter (keeping organisms at a balanced temperature) and prevents bodies of water from freezing solid

How does solvent properties make life on Earth possible?

water's polarity allows it to dissolve many substances, allowing for chemical reactions in cells and transport of nutrients and waste

What is it about water that gives it these properties?

a polar molecule, with a partial negative charge on oxygen and partial positive charges on hydrogens which allows hydrogen bonding (responsible for cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, expansion when freezed, and solvent abilities)

Identify the six elements that form the basis of all biological molecules

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

Explain how carbon's electron configuration explains its ability to form large, complex and diverse organic molecules

carbon has four valence electrons, allowing it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms

Describe the basic structure of a hydrocarbon

a hydrocarbon consists fully of carbon and hydrogen atoms, arranged in chains or rings

How are gasoline and fat chemically similar?

both made up of hydrocarbons (nonpolar, rich in energy molecules)

How do functional groups influence organic molecules?

determine how chemically reactive a molecule is and properties of organic molecules (solubility, acidity, and ability to take part in reactions)

Distinguish between monomers and polymers

monomers are single building blocks and polymers are long chains made from repeating monomers

Explain how the letters of the alphabet are similar to monomers of a polymer

letters combine to make words similar to how monomers combine to make polymers

Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

dehydration synthesis joins two monomers by removing water and hydrolysis breaks a polymer into monomers by adding water

Compare and contrast dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

involve water and change molecule size but dehydration builds and hydrolysis breaks down

Explain the phrase "you are what you eat" in the context of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

food is broken down by hydrolysis into monomers, which are remade by dehydration synthesis into polymers that make up your body

Monosaccharide

single sugar such as glucose

Disaccharide

two sugars such as sucrose

Polysaccharide

many sugars such as starch

Describe the formation of a glycosidic linkage

covalent bond forms between two sugar molecules through a dehydration reaction

Starch (structure and function)

storage polysaccharide in plants consisting of branched glucose polymers

Glycogen (structure and function)

storage polysaccharide in animals consisting of highly branched glucose polymers

Cellulose (structure and function)

structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls; straight, unbranched glucose polymer

Chitin (structure and function)

structural polysaccharide in fungi and arthropods; similar to cellulose with nitrogen groups

Building blocks of triglycerides

consist of glycerol and three fatty acids

Building blocks of phospholipids

consist of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group

Structure of steroids

consist of four fused carbon rings

Explain saturated fatty acid and an unsaturated fatty acid influence their behavior in living cells

saturated fatty acids are packed tightly, making them solid at room temperature (butter), unsaturated fatty acids have kinks, so they stay liquid (oils)

Explain why structure of a phospholipid is ideal for construction of cell membranes

have a hydrophilic head (phosphate) and hydrophobic tails (fatty acids), which create bilayers that make up cell membranes

Why would it be detrimental to cut all fat from your diet?

important for energy storage, cell membranes, hormone production, and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins

Explain how changing R group changes the properties of amino acid

R group determines amino acid's properties (polar, nonpolar, acidic, basic), which affects protein structure and function

Primary Structure (Protein)

linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain held by covalent peptide bonds

Secondary Structure (Protein)

local repeating backbone folding pattern forming a-helices and b-pleated sheets through hydrogen bonds

Tertiary Structure (Protein)

3D shape of single polypeptide chain formed by R group side chain interactions

Quaternary Structure (Protein)

combination of two or more polypeptide chains (subunits) forming a functional protein

How does high temperature denature proteins?

heat increases kinetic energy, interrupting weak hydrogen bonds and non-polar interactions

How do pH extremes denature proteins?

acids or bases change ionic charges on side chains, breaking ionic bonds

How does high salt concentration denature proteins?

ions compete for water molecules, disturbing ionic balances of protein

How do organic solvents or detergents denature proteins?

interrupt hydrophobic interactions, turning protein inside out

Why do denatured proteins no longer function normally?

unfold and lose their 3D shape, destroying active sites/binding regions

Three major components of a nucleotide

a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon pentose sugar, and a phosphate group

How are nucleotide monomers linked to form a nucleic acid?

through dehydration synthesis, forming a covalent phosphodiester bond

Which specific groups bond to link nucleotides together?

phosphate group on 5′ carbon bonds with 3′ hydroxyl (-OH) group

Role of DNA in protein synthesis

acts as a blueprint, storing genetic instructions needed to build every protein

Location and function of DNA in eukaryotic protein synthesis

remains inside nucleus, serving as a template for RNA synthesis

General role of RNA in making proteins

works as a messenger/helper, making a temporary copy of DNA instructions

Role of messenger RNA (mRNA)

copies genetic code from DNA and carries it from nucleus to cytoplasm

Role of transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

read mRNA message at ribosome to help assemble amino acids into proteins

What is the structure of pyrimidines?

pyrimidines have a single six-carbon/nitrogen ring

What is the structure of purines?

purines have a six-member ring fused to a five-member ring

What is the structure of ribose?

Ribose has a hydroxyl group (-OH) at the 2′ carbon

What is the structure of 3′ End of a Nucleotide?

3′ end has a free hydroxyl group (-OH) at 3′ carbon

What is the structure of deoxyribose?

deoxyribose has a hydrogen atom (-H) instead