NATURE VS. NURTURE (CULTURE)

NATURE VS. NURTURE

most important environmental factor which contribute to personality development

Cultural influences

Why is cultural influences contributing to our personality development?

• From birth we are immersed in a specific culture

• Our genetic background, manifested in temperament

• It will determine, in part, which characteristics of the context we will attend to, select, elaborate and incorporate.

Personality will be gradually formed by

the continuous & dynamic interactions between the individual and the environment

Inheritance of organism's traits

• transmitted offspring via genes

genes

segments of DNA in cell nuclei

DNA provides

instructions for protein synthesis, crucial for an organism's structure and function.

genotype

refers to an organism's genetic makeup

phenotype

• is the observable traits

• shaped by genotype-environment interactions

What can influence gene expressions?

• hormonal changes

Why can gene expression vary whether individuals share the same gene?

due to genetic dominance and recessiveness.

Behavioral genetics

• explores genetic influences on behavior and personality

How can we study Behavioral genetics?

• self-reports

• questionnaires

• twin, family, or adoption studies

Genetic similarities differ among individuals

• monozygotic (MC) twins share 100% of their genes

• dizygotic (DC) twins share 50%

• while adopted siblings share none

Environmental influences can be

• shared (family, socioeconomic factors)

Or

• unshared (birth order, friendships)

Genetic and Environmental Correlations Studies

• MC twins show higher correlations supporting genetic influence, than DC twins

• differences among MC twins indicate the role of unshared environments

• Biological relatives exhibit higher correlations than adopted ones = confirming genetic contributions to personality

Behavioral genetic studies are limited →

• Additive Genetic Effects

• Shared Environment Effects

• Measuring of the Environment

• Methodological Biases

• Gene-Environment Interactions

Additive Genetic Effects

• genetics may not be additive

• gene configurations may differ even among twins or siblings

• genetic dominance complicates assumptions of shared traits.

• non-additive genetic effects are significant in personality traits

Shared Environment Effects

• siblings interpret shared experiences differently, leading to divergent behaviors

• contrast effects in self-reports, may also skew findings

• shared environment impacts are modest but not negligible

Measuring of the Environment

• lack direct environmental measures, specifically family microenvironments

• like parenting styles = highlights the environment's role in shaping behavior, such as substance use

Methodological Biases

• Estimations often overstate genetic contributions

• while underrepresenting environmental factors due to reliance on correlations & neglect of gene-environment interactions

Gene-Environment Interactions

• Altering genetic effects under different conditions.

• Studies show genetic predispositions manifest variably based on parenting quality, income, stress, and specific life situations.

• Behavior varies across contexts = importance of situational factors

Culture

a shared system of meanings, including beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills, that a group of people hold in common

The adaptation & use of cultural norms

• individual differences

• influenced by preferences, moods, & situations

How does cultural norms shape behavior?

• in probabilistic ways

• About 60% of individuals within a culture tend to act in line with the shared cultural system

cultural distinction

individualism versus collectivism

collectivist cultures

• the group is the primary unit of action

• promotes practices & meanings that encourage group-oriented behavior

collectivism → set of meanings & practices that encourage people to

• Emphasize the connection with their group, considering themselves interdependent on it

• Describe themselves more as members of the group than as individuals

• Believe that social behavior is determined more by external elements (e.g., group norms) than by internal ones (e.g., personality traits or characteristics)

• Emphasize collective goals.

individualist cultures

• it is the individual

Individualism → set of meanings & practices that cause people to

• Emphasize the uniqueness & independence of the individual

• Describe themselves by personal attributes

• Believe that social behavior is determined more by these personal attributes than by external characteristics

• Give priority to their personal goals over those of the group.

two main approaches to studying the relationship between personality & culture

• cultural psychology

• cross-cultural psychology

Cultural psychology view of personality

• Emphasizes the interconnectedness of culture and personality

• Personality cannot be separated from the cultural context

• Socially constructed through the individual's interaction with their cultural environment

• Focuses on the unique aspects of each culture = highly context-dependent

• Methodology: experimental methods

• Emphasises expectations, attributions, & motives

cross-cultural psychology view of personality

• Treats culture and personality as separate entities

• Views culture as the independent variable = which is considered the dependent variable

• Focuses on identifying universal aspects of culture

• Compares different cultures to uncover these commonalities

• Examines individual differences & traits

• Methodology: standardized questionnaires

cultural psychology focuses mainly on the study

• motivational, emotional, cognitive

cross-cultural psychology focuses on study

• traits

self-perception

• encompasses how individuals perceive and evaluate themselves

Self-perception forms

• framework of influencing and shaping personal experiences, including how one perceives the world, processes emotions, and chooses to act.

• (cognition, emotions, behaviour)

self is constructed

interactions with the cultural environment

interactions with the cultural environment helps

individuals internalize the meanings and norms of their surroundings

The sum of Self-concept

the internalisation of meanings and norms of our surroundings

Self-concept in individualistic cultures

• The independent self predominates

• Individuals view themself = autonomous, self-contained entities

• Emphasise personal boundaries and define themselves by internal attributes like traits, preferences, and desires

• this reinforce consistency and individuality

Examples of Self-concept in individualistic cultures

• I am sincere

• I am responsible

primary control

• individuals seek to shape their environment to align with personal goals.

• individualistic cultures

relationships in individualistic cultures

instrumental

instrumental relationship

• Serve as means to achieve personal objectives or fullfill individual needs.

Self-concept in collectivistic cultures

• interdependent self

Self defined in collectivistic cultures

• through relationships and group membership

Self-perception in collectivistic cultures

• interconnected with others

• interdependency

• acting in harmony with the shared goals and desires of their group.

• Focuses on roles and relationships

Examples of Self-perception in collectivistic cultures

• “I am a mother”

• “I am a student of Kyoto”

Behaviour in collectivistic cultures

• largely guided by social norms and responsibilities (not personal traits)

View of social worlds in a collectivistic cultures

• fixed and enduring

Collectivistic cultures emphasises secondary control

• individuals adapt themselves to fit social roles and expectations

• adjustments

relationships in collectivistic culture

• Hold intrinsic value

• group members considered extensions of the self.

individualistic cultures SELF-ESTEEM

• higher levels of self-esteem

• why? they are independent of social desirability

The meaning of self-esteem in individualistic cultures

• self-esteem strongly correlates with well-being, as autonomy and personal achievement are highly valued.

Why lover self-esteem in collectivistic cultures?

• influenced by cultural values such as modesty

The meaning of self-esteem in collectivist cultures

• well-being is more closely tied to harmonious relationships and adherence to social norms

Motivation in individualistic cultures

• largely driven by a focus on achieving success

• behaviors which attribute successes to internal factors like ability while attributing failures to external causes

affirming their sense of efficacy

• behaviors which attribute successes to internal factors like ability while attributing failures to external causes

Motivation in collectivistic cultures

• prioritize avoiding failure = avoidance motivation

• derive motivation from failure

• emphasis achieving respect and harmony within social relationship

avoidance motivation

• prioritize avoiding failure

• collectivistic cultures

What does adjusting to the expectations of others in collective cultures lead to?

• heightened focus on negative attributes

• events that signal areas for growth.

  • self-critical nature

What motivates collectivistic cultures

self-critical nature

What does self-critical nature contribute to in collectivistic cultures?

• Instead of undermining their well-being, it motivates perseverance and improvement in areas where they have faced setbacks

Canadians & Japanese study on persisted:

• Japanese persisted more after failure

• Canadians persisted more after success

Emotions and well-being in individualistic cultures

• emphasize ego-focused emotions, such as pride and self-confidence = arise from satisfaction of personal goals & affirm an independent identity

• Negative emotions stem from blocked goals or interference with personal desires.

Emotions and well-being in collectivistic cultures

• Prioritize relational emotions, such as sympathy, respect, and guilt, which are integral to maintaining social harmony

• Negative emotions as guilt and shame are associated with failures in relationships & motivate individuals to restore harmony

Studies of emotions among Canadian & Japanese

• Japanese: experience and express relational emotions more frequently than ego-focused emotions.

  • report fewer and less intense emotions = their focus is directed outward toward social dynamics

• Americans: exhibit the opposite pattern, favoring ego-focused emotions.

  • Emotions play a significant role in subjective well-being.

Happiness individualistic cultures

• closely tied to self-esteem, positive emotions, and the achievement of personal goals

• Is associated with a predominance of positive emotions over negative ones

Happiness collectivistic cultures

• is rooted in social harmony, adaptation to norms, and emotional support from relationships

• reflects a balance between positive and negative emotions (yin-yang = coexistence of opposites)

how cultural contexts shape motivation, emotion, and wellbeing?

• Individualistic societies prioritize personal success, self-esteem, and positive emotions

• collectivistic societies emphasize social harmony, self-improvement, and emotional balance.

Fundamental attribution error

• Bias which involves overestimating internal factors and underestimating situational ones when explaining behavior

Attention patterns in Easterners

• pay greater attention to their environment and a broader range of stimuli

• consider both focus narrowly on the object and its surrounding context

• holistic attention = collectivist cultures

holistic attention = collectivist cultures

• emphasis on external contexts

• need to adapt to complex social environments

• greater tolerance for contradictions

• prioritize compromise

Attention patterns in Westerners

• tend to focus narrowly on specific objects

• focused attention = individualist cultures

focused attention = individualist cultures

• resolve inconsistencies by favoring one side and ignoring conflicting information

Cognitive style in individualist cultures

• analytical thinking

analytical thinking

• focuses on object attributes, categorization, and abstract rules

• e.g. categorizing objects

Cognitive style in collectivist cultures

• holistic thinking

holistic thinking

• Emphasizes relationships, experiential knowledge, and balance.

• e.g. grouping objects relationally

Traits

• Cross-cultural psychology = Big Five model

• Cultural psychology = questions their relevance across cultures

Indigenous approaches

• Derive personality terms from native languages

• reveal unique dimensions in some cultures

Example of cross-cultural study on traits:

China, traits like "interpersonal relationships" and "Chinese tradition" are prominent, while "openness to experience" is absent.

Individualistic cultures, behavior is seen as

• consistent due to stable internal traits.

• Self-assessment

In collectivist cultures, behavior is shaped by

• social roles and norms, leading to greater situational variation.

• view traits as context dependent.

Cultural psychology explores

• how personality and culture influence each other

• focus on how different cultures shape individual behavior patterns.

some recent studies suggest persoanlity is shaped by

• cultural contexts at both:

• micro level (e.g., musical preferences, personal spaces)

• macro level (e.g., political orientation, social activism)

• personality examines effects of these interactions rather than the interactions themselves