ap gov final exam review - all terms

Political Participation

The ways in which individuals take action to influence government policies and leadership. This includes voting, campaigning, contacting officials, and participating in protests.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A landmark federal legislation that prohibits racial discrimination in voting, aiming to eliminate barriers such as literacy tests and poll taxes that disenfranchised African American voters.

Motor-Voter Act (1993)

Also known as the National Voter Registration Act, this law made it easier for Americans to register to vote by allowing registration at motor vehicle departments and other public offices.

Factors Affecting Voter Turnout

Various elements that influence the likelihood of individuals voting, including age, education, income, interest in politics, and the competitiveness of elections.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's actions can influence political processes. High political efficacy leads to greater political participation.

Plurality

An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not have an absolute majority.

Majority

A voting system where a candidate must receive more than half of the votes to win.

Interest Groups

Organizations that seek to influence public policy in favor of their members' interests. They engage in lobbying, litigation, and public campaigns.

Free Rider Problem

Occurs when individuals benefit from resources or services without paying for them, leading to under-provision of those resources.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values, influenced by family, education, media, and peers.

Political Models

Theoretical frameworks describing how elected officials should act.

Politico Model

A hybrid approach where legislators balance their own judgment with constituent preferences.

Trustee Model

Elected officials make decisions based on their own expertise and judgment.

Delegate Model

Representatives act strictly according to the wishes of their constituents.

Electoral College

The body of electors established by the Constitution to elect the president and vice president. Each state has a number of electors equal to its congressional representation.

12th Amendment (1804)

Amended the Constitution to provide for separate Electoral College votes for President and Vice President, addressing issues from the election of 1800.

Presidential Powers

The authority vested in the president, including: Appointing officials, Making treaties, Serving as Commander in Chief, Receiving ambassadors, Granting pardons, Vetoing bills, Issuing executive orders and agreements.

Bully Pulpit

The president's use of their visibility and prestige to influence public opinion and promote their policies.

Veto

The president's constitutional right to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing its enactment into law.

Pocket Veto

A special type of veto exercised by the president after Congress adjourns, by not signing a bill within 10 days, effectively preventing its enactment.

Presidential Coattails

The tendency for a popular president to attract votes for other candidates of the same party in congressional elections.

Cabinet, Agencies, Public Corporations

Components of the executive branch that assist in the administration of government functions.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

Senatorial Courtesy

The practice whereby the president seeks the approval of a senator from the state where a judicial vacancy exists before nominating a candidate.

Supreme Court Nominations

The process by which the president nominates individuals to serve on the Supreme Court, subject to Senate confirmation.

Concurring Opinion

An opinion written by a justice who agrees with the majority's decision but for different reasons.

Dissenting Opinion

An opinion written by a justice who disagrees with the majority's decision.

Judicial Activism

The philosophy that courts should play an active role in shaping public policy by addressing social issues.

Judicial Restraint

The philosophy that courts should defer to the decisions of elected branches of government and avoid making policy decisions.

Checks on the Supreme Court

Mechanisms by which the other branches of government can limit the power of the judiciary, such as impeachment and altering the number of justices.

Congress can impeach judges

The legislative branch's authority to remove federal judges from office for misconduct.

Congress can alter the number of judges

The legislative branch's power to change the size of the Supreme Court.

Can amend the Constitution

The ability of Congress to propose amendments to the Constitution, subject to ratification.

Congress can change jurisdiction of the lower courts and the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

Congress's authority to define and limit the jurisdiction of federal courts.

rational choice voting

A voting theory suggesting that individuals make electoral choices based on individual preferences and the expected outcomes of their votes.

party-line voting

A voting pattern where voters align with their political party's stance on issues, leading to consistent support for party candidates.

retrospective voting

A voting behavior where individuals base their electoral choices on the past performance of a candidate or political party.

prospective voting

A voting behavior where individuals make electoral choices based on the anticipated future policies or performance of candidates.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

The Articles created a loose confederation of states with a weak central government that lacked power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. It required unanimous consent to amend and had no executive or judiciary.

Daniel Shays

A former Revolutionary War soldier who led a rebellion (Shays' Rebellion) in 1786-87 against economic injustices and state government weakness, exposing the inadequacies of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention (1787)

A meeting in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but resulted in drafting a new Constitution.

Virginia Plan

Proposed by large states; representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed by small states; equal representation per state.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

Created a bicameral legislature—House based on population, Senate with equal representation.

Branches of Government

The Constitution established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial—each with checks and balances.

Slavery and the 3/5 Compromise

For representation and taxation, three out of every five enslaved persons would be counted.

Popular Sovereignty

Power resides with the people.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others.

Federalism

Division of power between national and state governments.

Separation of Powers

Distinct responsibilities for each branch.

Limited Government

Government powers are restricted by law.

Ratification

The process of approving the Constitution, requiring nine of thirteen states.

Federalists

Supported the Constitution; favored a strong central government.

Federalist #10

Argues that a large republic can control factions and prevent tyranny.

Federalist #51

Advocates for checks and balances and separation of powers.

Federalist #70

Supports a strong, single executive for accountability and energy.

Federalist #78

Justifies judicial review and a life-tenured judiciary.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed the Constitution; feared central authority and lack of a bill of rights.

Brutus 1

Warns against a large central government overpowering the states.

The Amendments and Federalism

The Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments) was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists and protect individual liberties; several amendments (e.g., 10th) reinforce federalism by reserving powers to the states.

Three Types of Government

Unitary: Centralized government holds most power. Federal: Power shared between national and state governments. Confederate: States hold power; weak central government.

Dual Federalism

"Layer cake" federalism where national and state governments operate separately.

Marble Cake Federalism

Cooperative federalism where powers are mixed and intertwined.

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution (e.g., coin money, declare war).

Reserved Powers

Powers not granted to the federal government are reserved for the states (10th Amendment).

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both federal and state governments (e.g., tax, build roads).

Fiscal Federalism

The federal government uses money (grants) to influence state policies.

Grants-in-aid Program

Federal funds given to states for specific purposes.

Categorical Grants

Specific-purpose grants with strict guidelines.

General Revenue Sharing

Federal funds with minimal restrictions (phased out).

Block Grants

Funds for broad purposes with state discretion.

U.S. v. Lopez (1995)

Limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause; first major decision to restrict federal power in decades.

Devolution

The transfer of powers from the federal government to the states.

Mandates

Federal requirements imposed on states, sometimes without funding (unfunded mandates).

Participatory Democracy

A model emphasizing broad participation in politics and civil society by citizens.

Pluralist Democracy

This theory posits that political power is distributed among many competing interest groups.

Elite Democracy

A model suggesting that a small number of people influence political decision-making.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it articulates the colonies' reasons for seeking independence.

Articles of Confederation (1781)

The first constitution of the U.S., creating a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government.

U.S. Constitution (1787)

The supreme law of the United States, establishing the national government's structure, functions, and limitations.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent to all humans, such as life, liberty, and property.

Social Contract

The idea that people consent to form governments to protect their rights.

Republicanism

A political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic.

Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

Establishes that the Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Grants Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for executing its enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the authority to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes.

Electoral College

A compromise between election of the president by Congress and election by popular vote.

Article V

Outlines the process for amending the Constitution, requiring proposal by two-thirds of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states.

Qualifications for House

Must be 25 years old, 7 years a U.S. citizen, and live in the state they represent.

Qualifications for Senate

Must be 30 years old, 9 years a U.S. citizen, and live in the state they represent.

Powers of Congress

Enumerated in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution:

Powers of Congress

Collect taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce with other nations, coin money, declare war, control armed forces, make necessary laws.

Implied powers

Derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Standing Committees

Permanent, deal with specific subject areas (e.g., agriculture, judiciary).

Incumbent Advantages

Includes easier fundraising, PAC support, franking privilege, travel allowances, casework, pork barrel spending, name recognition, and logrolling.

Open Rule

Allows amendments to a bill.

Closed Rule

No amendments; speeds passage.

Filibuster

Tactic used in the Senate to delay or block legislation by speaking at length.

Cloture

A vote to end a filibuster. Requires 60 senators.

Party Polarization

When political parties become more ideologically extreme and less willing to compromise.