Contemporary Urban Environments

Urban Growth

Urban Growth

An increase in the number of urban dwellers.

Classifications of urban dwellers depend on the census definitions of urban areas but usually include population size, population density, average distance between buildings in a settlement or legal boundaries.

Urbanisation

An increase in the proportion of a country's population that lives in towns and cities.

The two main causes of urbanisation are natural population growth and migration into urban areas from rural areas.

Urban Sprawl

The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside.

MNCs / TNCs

Multi-national companies and trans-national companies. They are companies that operate in more than one country.

This often means the headquarters of a company is in one country while the factories will be in another country.

Primary production

This involves acquiring raw material

Secondary production

This is the manufacturing and assembly process

Tertiary production

This refers to the commercial services that support the production and distribution process.

Quaternary

The sector of industry that involves the intellectual services

Patterns of urbanisation

- The urban population has grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2004.

- The most urbanised regions include North and Latin America, and Europe

- The fastest growing urban areas are currently found in Africa and Asia

- In India alone, it is predicted that 70% of cities have yet to be built

- Some cities have experienced population decline, such as New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina

What are the 2 main causes of urban growth

- Natural population growth

- Rural-to-urban migration

Natural Population Growth

Urban areas tend to have relatively young age profiles. It is usually young adults (15-40 years) migrating, lured by the prospect of higher paid jobs, better educational opportunities and greater social and cultural diversity.

These migrants are in their fertile years so the rates of natural increase are higher in cities than urban areas.

In London, an area south of the River Thames has been termed 'Nappy Valley' due to the high proportion of young families living here.

Rural-To-Urban Migration

The reasons for rural-urban migration are often divided into 'push' and 'pull' factors.

Push factors cause people to move away from rural areas, whereas pull factors attract them to urban areas. In low-income countries, push factors tend to be more important than pull factors..

Push factors in rural-to-urban migration

Push factors are largely due to poverty caused by:

- Population growth, which means the same area of land has to support increasing numbers of people, causing over-farming, soil erosion and low yields

- Agricultural problems

- High levels of local diseases and inadequate medical provisions

- Agriculture increasingly being organised globally. Land previously used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash crops for sale in HICs. Many traditional rural communities have been driven off their land and into cities

- Natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms and earthquakes - people flee rural areas and do not return

- Wars and civil strife cause people to flee their land

Pull factors for rural-to-urban migration

Pull factors include the prospect of:

- Employment in factories and service industries which is better paid than work in rural areas. There is an increasingly high demand for unskilled labour in cities

- Earning money from the informal sector, for example, selling goods on the street, providing transport (taxi/rickshaw driver) or prostitution

- Better quality social provisions, from basic needs such as education and healthcare to entertainment and tourism

- A perceived better quality of life in the city, fed in part by images in the media

What is the birth rate?

Number of live births per 1000 per year

What is the death rate?

Number of deaths per 1000 per year

Natural Change

The change in population because of the difference between birth rate and death rate

What is the demographic transition model?

A graph showing how populations change over time.

Describe stage 1 of the DTM

High Stationary:
- High birth rate (around 40)
- High death rate (around 40)
- Slow or stable natural increase
- Very slow population growth

Give an example of a country in stage 1

Very few remote groups
- Amazonian tribe

Describe stage 2 of the DTM

Early expanding:
- High birth rate (around 40)
- Rapid falling death rate
- Very fast natural increase
- Rapid population growth

Give an example of a country in stage 2

- Nepal
- Philippines

Describe stage 3 of the DTM

Late Expanding:
- Falling birth rate
- Slower falling death rate
- Natural increase slowing down
- Rapid population growth

Name a country in stage 3

Brazil

Describe stage 4 of the DTM

Low Stationary:
- Low birth rate (around 10)
- Low death rate (around 10)
- Very slow natural increase
- Slow population growth

Name a country in stage 4

UK

Describe stage 5 of the DTM

Declining:
- Very low birth rate (slowly decreasing)
- Low death rate (slowly increasing)
- Slow natural decrease
- Slight decrease in population growth

Name a country in stage 5

Germany

Causes of urban growth in HICs

Economic:
- Agricultural revolution - fewer farmers needed
- Strength of currency
- Industrial revolution
- Post-industrial revolution - slower urban growth

Social:
- Feudalism ended - migration to towns
- Rural-to-urban migration in the industrial revolution - DTM Stage 3
- Rural pushes and urban pulls initially but as living standards across the country rise, including in rural areas, counter-urbanisation can occur

Technological:
- Medical advances in technology
- Industrial revolution - large scale manufacturing developed
- Growth of transport - London Underground in 1863
- Internet - ability to work from home lowered urban growth

Political:
- Government buildings in the city
- UK government main investments in cities and transport infrastructure

Demographic:
- People once to the city to be less isolated in rural areas
- Lower natural increase in Stage 4/5 of DTM
- Chanding employment structure - low primary and secondary industries - more tertiary and quaternary industry
- Immigration

Causes of urban growth in LICs

Economic:
- Industrialisation - more factories built so more people migrate to the city for more jobs and money
- Globalisation and dominance of MNCs
- Low wage economies attract MNCs

Social:
- Better education - more people migrating to the city for higher paid jobs
- Better healthcare in the city - more migration
- Low wage rates
- Strong rural pushes and strong urban pulls

Technological:
- Machines replacing the need of people in rural areas on farms - forced migration
- Transport, e.g. flights, allowed production to be moved further afield
- Improved Western medical aid lowers death rate

Political:
- Brazil's gouvernement stated it can better look after its people in cities
- Governments main investments in cities and transport infrastructure

Demographic:
- Poverty in rural areas - more migration
- High natural increase in Stage 1/2
- Growing secondary and tertiary sectors

Social Consequences of urbanisation in HICs

Positive:
- Cities provide a wide range of services that could not be provided in rural areas such as health and education
- Larger community - more diverse culture and race in population

Negative:
- Overcrowding - increased pressure on supplies - leads to prostitution, drugs and crime
- More cars - congestion - longer commute times
- Social unrest - riots - Manchester 1981
- Concentration of immigrants leading to ghettos
- People living in poorer areas of the city suffer from worse health, lower life expectancy and lower educational achievement

Economic consequences of urbanisation in HICs

Positive:
- City is a major global hub - more overseas investors buying property
- Jobs increased economic wealth, material possessions and consumerism
- Demand of goods may increase pushing production in the economy leading to a higher GDP

Negatives:
- Rising house prices due to higher demand. In some parts of London, prices rose by 50% from 2010 to 2015.
- Higher costs of living, transportation and housing
- Unexpected urbanisation leads to poverty
-Urban sprawl requires more roads and infrastructure - expensive

Environmental consequences of urbanisation in HICs

Positives:
People living at higher densities conserves lands
- Higher waste produces encourages further efforts to recycle

Negative:
- Excess waste disposal - causes more pollution and fills landfills
- Pollution
- More cars, more air pollution - higher temperatures caused by urban heat island effect
- Urban sprawl - more community, more pollution - also leads to loss of farmland and loss of habitat and wildlife

Political consequences of urbanisation in HICs

Positives:
- Government can better look after its population in cities
- More workers available for government jobs - aids country's development

Social consequences of urbanisation in LICs

Positives:
- Greater availability of food, water, healthcare and education
- Better quality of life in urban areas
- Inhabitants in cities like Lima have a life expectancy 10 years longer than in rural areas
- Tribal/inter-regional differences broken down - national unity
- 'Slums of hope' - sense of community and shared skills

Negatives:
- Urbanisation too rapid to keep up with demand for essential services
- Spread of diseases like dysentery and cholera - strain on medical services - high infant mortality
- Prostitution, crime and drugs
- Abandoned children
- Increased pressure on supplies - housing shortage and overcrowding
- Over 900,000 people live in slums - gives poor image of city which discourages tourism and investment
- Slums are dangerous places - crime - fires due to closely build wooden structures

Environmental consequences of urbanisation in LICs

Positives:
- Reduces pressure on land in rural areas
- Increased recycled from excess waste
- In Nairobi, old car tyres are cut up to make cheap sandals that are sold for income

Negatives:
- Urban sprawl - loss of wildlife habitats and farmland - also requires more commuting leads to increased pollution
- Higher temperatures from urban heat island effect
- Waste management problems - more waste produced

Economic consequences of urbanisation in LICs

Positives:
- Stimulates agricultural economy around city; converting subsistence farmers into commercial farmers
- Large, cheap workforce attracts MNCs and industry leading to economic wealth
- Work is better paid in urban areas
- Remission of money back to family in rural areas

Negatives:
- High unemployment and underemployment
- Urban sprawl requires more roads and infrastructure - expensive
- Many people work in the informal sector which implies self-employment and low income

Main consequences of urban growth

Urban Sprawl

Housing shortages

Lack of urban services & waste disposal

Unemployment

Transport issues

Urban sprawl

The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside.

It has many negative impacts:
- Requires more roads leading to increased congestion and air pollution (car-dependent lifestyles)
- Wildlife and habitat loss with urban sprawl into rural areas
- Decentralisation of retail companies
- Homogenisation of the landscape

Shortage of housing

Population density is high in urban areas leading to a shortage of areas.

In HICs, the rising demand for accommodation in cities has led to a dramatic increase in both house prices and rental costs - average house prices rose by 50% in London from 2010 to 2015. Fueled by in-migration, gentrification and purchasing of properties by wealthy foreign investors.

In LICS, increases slum population. Shortage of accommodation leading to the presence of large areas of informal and often inadequate areas with limited access to basic infrastructure and a lack of services. E.g. Dharavi, Mumbai.

Lack of urban services

Financial restraints in LICs lead to lack of basic services and infrastructure such as water and roads. Rapid spread of disease occurs.

Lack of waste disposal, sewage and drainage maintenance. In some cities this is seen as an opportunity to reuse and make money, e.g. Nairobi selling waste - old car types used to make cheap sandals

Unemployment and underemployment

Since a high proportion of the people who move to cities are relatively young, there is a considerable pressure to create sufficient jobs. Unemployment rates are typically high and many migrants find employment in informal work such as street hawking.

Under-employment refers to a situation in which a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills and abilities. This may occur when a migrant moves to a new city.

Transport issues

The processes of urbanisation and suburbanisation have led to increased traffic in cities across the world, creating increased traffic and pollution, damaging human health and wasting billions of pounds in lost productivity.

The spread of houses into the suburbs and beyond has created surges of morning and evening commuters. Traffic flows for shopping, entertainment and other commercial services add to the problem.

Suburbanisation

The movement of people living in the inner parts of a city to living on the outer parts.

Main causes of suburbanisation

Changing communications (especially transport e.g mass-transit systems such as the London Underground (1863))

Development of technology and ICT, e.g. the spread of broadband services. the growth of email and home-conferencing.

Work and attitudes lead to changing living requirements

Inner city pushes and suburban pulls

Inner city pushes

Pollution from cars and industries

Congestion

General perception of a lower quality of life in city centres

High crime rates

High house and land prices

High unemployment

Suburban pulls

Lower housing prices

Increasing amount of jobs

More green and open spaces

Lower crime rates

General perception of a higher quality of life away from the city centre

Positive effects of suburbanisation on the inner city

Less density housing required

More space for social housing

Less strain on city services and infrastructure

Greater availability of space allows for improved communication networks

Derelict land can be cleared allowing for increased opportunities and environmental improvement

Negative effects of suburbanisation on the inner city

Transfer of the middle class population out of the inner city into the suburbs - effects viability of city centres

Some areas will be left derelict

Decline of inner city areas

Communities are split up and damaged by people moving

Increasing social segregation within cities as the wealth move to the suburbs - leads to polarisation and resentment

Diversion of funding away from inner city areas to the suburbs to pay for new services

Positive effects of suburbanisation on the rural-urban fringe

Green belt policies

Increase in services - local tax base increases so councils can afford to develop new facilities and services

As wealthy people move in, increased demand for recreational facilities like gyms

Increased demand of retail parks at the fringe
Increasing employment opportunities in offices and shops

Increased diversity in community

Growth of transport link to CBD

Negative effects of suburbanisation on the rural-urban fringe

Intra-suburban traffic increases

Increase commute - more pollution

Increased strain on services

City increases in size as the demand for low density housing increases

Land price increases as demand increases

The green belt is put under increasing pressure

Decay of local community atmosphere - may be lack of community cohesion

Loss of farmland and open spaces

Characteristics of a suburbanised village

It is an original village core

Infilling of houses between old houses

Houses built along roads leading out of village in ribbon developments and larger planned estates located outside the village core

Counter-urbanisation

The movement of people from large urban areas into smaller urban settlements and rural areas

Main causes of counter-urbanisation

People want to escape from the air pollution, dirt and crime of the urban environment. They aspire to the 'rural idyll' - what they see as the pleasant, quiet and clean environment of the countryside where land and house prices are cheaper

Car ownership and greater affluence allow people to commute to work from such areas. Many employers have moved out of cities.

Improvements in technology have allowed more freedom of location. The speed of broadband and high speed internet access means that someone working from a home computer can now access the same global system as a person in an office block in the centre of a city

Rising demand for second homes and early retirement

Increasing need for rural areas to attract income. Agriculture has faced economic difficulties and one straightforward way for farmers to raise money is to sell unwanted land and buildings

What evidence is there for counter-urbanisation in an area?

An increase in the use of a commuter railway station in the area, including car parking for commuters

Increased value of houses in the area

The construction of more executive housing in the are, often on newly designated building land, following the demolition of old properties

Conversions of former farm buildings to exclusive residences

What is the rural-turnaround?

Social and demographic change in rural settlements, sometimes referred to as the 'rural turnaround'. This may include:

The out-migration of young village-born adults seeking education and employment opportunities elsewhere

The decline of the elderly village-born population through deaths

The in-migration of young to middle-aged married couples or families with young children

The in-migration of younger, more affluent people, increasing house prices

Positive effects of counter-urbanisation

Newcomers enjoy living in the settlement

Local shopkeepers have new customers
Increased diversity in community - could promote cohesion

Old properties and some agricultural buildings are converted and modernised

Improvement in services - e.g. gas mains, cable TV, supports local schools

Supports some local facilities - e.g. pub, builders, etc.

Light industry may develop - e.g. B&Bs, small hotels, bistros

Negative effects of counter-urbanisation

Newcomes have different social norms - could cause divides or segregation

Local residents say newcomers do not contribute to the stability of the village - leads to tension

Rise in demand increases house prices - locals cannot afford to stay

Increased strain on infrastructure and services in the area

Newcomers may not use the public services - local services may have to close - e.g. post offices and schools - newcomers have the wealth and mobility to use the urban services some distance away

Supermarkets and other businesses that are attracted to suburbanised villages may result in traditional rural services closing down

Public transport goes into decline because the new residents are car owners

Increased traffic congestion and air pollution

Urban resurgence

Urban resurgence refers to the regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline.

An urban resurgence has been seen in many cities in recent years as redevelopment schemes have made city living more attractive. This is particularly the case for former industrial cities of the UK which suffered from the manufacturing decline in the 1970s and 1980s, but have reinvented themselves as vities of culture and commerce.

Characteristics of urban resurgence

Urban resurgence is evident in the changing landscape of a city. Areas may still contain the industrial architecture of the past, including factories and warehouses, but increasingly these have been converted for housing or commercial use and modern infrastructure and services added.

Many urban redevelopment schemes have successfully transformed run-down areas, rebranding them as fashionable districts or 'quarters' which then attract more newcomers, often young professionals, with a high disposable income.

Causes of urban resurgence

Urban resurgence is often driven by government-led regeneration schemes but there are wider economic, social and demographic processes which are also important.

Redevelopment by private companies has led to the wholesale transformation of parts of UK cities in recent years and this has served to attract further investment.

City living has also become more attractive as urban areas are improved and people choose to live closer to work, entertainment and leisure facilities, rather than face long and costly commutes.

Globalisation and technological change have facilitated the resurgence of some urban areas, for example East London Tech City which is home to a cluster of independent start-up companies as well as global organisations such as Google.

Major sporting events can act as a catalyst to changing the fortunes of an area. The London Olympics brought much needed investment to former industrial parts while the 2014 Commonwealth Games encourages urban regeneration and business investment in parts of Glasgow depressed by the decline of shipbuilding, steel making and heavy engineering.

Effects of urban resurgence

Resurgence has a positive multiplier effect, initiating further improvements and attracting greater investment into an area. However, as more people are attracted back into a city, greater pressure is put on the urban infrastructure and some people may find themselves displaced as house prices rise in line with demand.

There are also concerns that not everyone benefits from resurgence and this has led to increasing inequality between rich and poor.

Deindustrialisation

The refers to the loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector, which occurred in the UK in the second half of the twentieth century.

Causes of deindustrialisation

Mechanisation: most firms can produce their goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people

Competition from abroad, particularly the rapidly industrialising countries of the time such as Taiwan, South Korea, India and China

Reduced demand for traditional products as new materials and technologies have been developed

Depletion of resources

Change of government policies

Economic impacts of deindustrialisation

Loss of jobs and personal disposable incomes

Closure of other businesses which support closing industry

Loss of tax income to the local authority and potential decline in services

Increase in demand for state benefits

Loss of income in the service sector as a result of falling spending power of the local population

Decline in property prices as out-migration occurs

De-industrialisation led to the de-multiplier effect in the urban areas affected

Social impacts of deindustrialisation

Increase in unemployment

Higher levels of deprivation

Out-migration of population, usually those who are better qualified and more prosperous

Higher levels of crime, family breakdown, alcohol and drug abuse and other social problems

Loss of confidence and morale in local population

Environmental impacts of deindustrialisation

Derelict land and buildings

Long-term pollution of land from 'dirty' industries such as dye works and iron foundries remains a problem because there is no money for land remediation

Deteriorating infrastructure

Reduced maintenance of local housing caused by lower personal and local authority incomes

Positive environmental impacts have been a reduction in noise, land and water pollution and reduced traffic congestion

Decentralisation

The movement of population and industry from the urban centre to outlying areas.

- Redistributing, functions, powers or people away from CBD
- Delegation of power amongst different levels of government
- Aim to improve production efficiency
- Improves accountability to service users

Why has there been a rise in the service sector?

The decline in manufacturing employment in the late twentieth century was accompanied by the rise of the service economy in urban areas. The service economy covers a wide range of activities including:
- Tertiary activities such as financial services (for example, banking, insurance), retailing, leisure, transport, education and health
- Quaternary activities where knowledge or ideas are the main output, such as advertising, computer programming and software design.

Population growth fuels the service sector but it has also grown because:
- Financial services are needs to support manufacturing industries, which are still important in many cities today
- As societies become more technologically sophisticated, they need a larger range of specialised services to keep them running
- As societies become wealthier, they demand more leisure and retail services

The expansion of the service sector has been evident in cities all over the world and for many urban areas there has been a dramatic shift in their economic core from manufacturing to service-based activities

While the growth in the service sector has gone some way to reducing the unemployment caused by de-industrialisation in urban areas, what problems still exist?

Many of the men who lost jobs through de-industrialisation have continued to suffer from long-term unemployment

Many of the service jobs created are part-time or temporary

The number of service jobs created has not always made up for the loss of manufacturing jobs

Inner city locations have been avoided by both service industries and newer manufacturing jobs leading to continued inner city decline

Urban policy

Urban policy relates to the strategies chosen by local of central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems.

Regeneration has been a key element of urban policy in the UK since the 1980s and while early strategies focused on 'top-down' economic regeneration, subsequent policies have recognised the need to adopt a more holistic approach, tackling economic, social and environmental problems from the 'bottom-up'.

Urban policy in the UK (1979-1991)

1979-1991: Emphasis given to property-led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture

Greater emphasis places on the role of the private sector to regenerate inner city areas. Coalition boards were set up with people from the local business community and they were encouraged to spend money on buying land. Building infrastructure and marketing to attract private investment.

Examples: Enterprise Zones, Urban Development Corporations, Urban Land Grants, City Action Teams

Urban policy in the UK (1991-1997)

1991 - 1997: Partnership schemes and competition-led policy

A greater focus on local leadership and partnerships between the private sector, local communities, voluntary sector and the local authority.

Strategies focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems in run-down parts of the city, which now included peripheral estates.

Examples: City Challenge, City Pride, Single Regeneration Budget

Urban policy in the UK (1997-2000s)

1997-2000s: Area-based initiatives

Many strategies in the 2000s focused upon narrowing the gap in key social and economic indicators between most deprived neighbourhoods and the rest of the country.

Local authorities were set targets to improve levels of health, education and employment opportunities and funding was allocated to assist them in delivering government objectives

Examples: New Deal for Communities, Regional Development Agencies (RDAs)

Urban policy in the UK (The future?)

There have been calls for greater devolution of powers to English cities, of the type granted to Greater Manchester in 2014. Some feel this will lead to more effective place-based urban policies

Urban Development Co-operations

Urban Development Corporations were established to completely redevelop areas that has suffered from Britain's rapid deindustrialisation in the 1960s and 1970s.

Established under the Local Government Planning and Land Act 1980, urban development corporations (UDCs) have a broad remit to:
- secure the regeneration of a defined area achieved by bringing land and buildings into effective use
- encourage the development of existing and new industry and commerce
- create an attractive environment
- ensure housing and social facilities are available to encourage people to live and work in the area.

- Boards mostly made up of people from local businesses
- Funding from Central Government
- Encouraged to buy land, build infrastructure and market
- 190,000 jobs created nationally
- Property let approach did not tackle social problems
- Local people say they had little involvement in process

City Challenge

City challenge is a bottom-up redevelopment type of project in the UK led by community based improvements in inner city areas. City challenge was a big initiative of the 1990s. It had a holistic approach to regeneration, where local authorities, private companies and the local community worked together from the start. The focus of the projects varied.

- Cities compete with each other for regeneration grants
- Cities with the best schemes were awarded grants
- Local authority scheme, formed partnership between sectors
- Tackled social, economic and environmental problems
- Bidding for funding lead to more successful regeneration
- 40,000 houses improved
- 53,000 jobs created
- Resources spread thinly over large areas
- Money lost preparing bids

New Deal for Communities

Funded by the Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG), the New Deal for Communities (NDC) was a community-led ten year area-based initiative in 39 of England's most deprived neighbourhoods running from 1998-2008 with each NDC Partnership receiving around £50 million over the duration.

- Local partnerships and businesses established
- Communities at 'heart of the regeneration'
- 2002-2008: 32/36 core indicators improved
- Improvements in crime, unemployment, health and housing
- Narrowing of gaps between authority levels
- Focused on positive change for place rather than people
- Little next change achieved for education and worklessness

Enterprise Zones

Area of high unemployment were designated as Enterprise zones in 1981.

They offered lower taxes to businesses and companies and eased planning restrictions.

What initiatives were put into place in many cities to try and protect and revitalise the CBDs of many cities?

Pedestrianisation - restricting motor vehicle access along shopping streets and allow shoppers to feel safe and have good air quality

CBD shopping centres were covered to prevent people being exposed to adverse weather

Money was spent on the public realm - all of the street furniture and paving, to ensure that the shopping environment looks nice

Grants were made available to retailers to take on derelict buildings. This happened in Grainger Town in Newcastle

Investment was made in gentrifying the outside of old and historic buildings

Urban Form

Urban form refers to the physical characteristics that make up built-up areas, including shape, size, density and organisation of settlement.

It can be considered at different scales: from regional to urban, neighbourhood and street and is evolving continually in response to social, economic, environmental, political and technological developments.

Urban forms in the UK

Currently the UK's urban form is characterised by 64 'primary urban areas'.

Six large metropolitan areas (Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle and Sheffield)

And 56 towns and cities with more than 125,000 people

It has one built-up megacity (London, and the Greater South-East)

Megacity

A megacity is a metropolitan area with a total population over 10 million people.

Metacity

A conurbation with more than 20 million people

Advantages of mega cities

They offer opportunities to expand access to services such as healthcare and education, for large numbers of people in an economically efficient manner

It is less environmentally damaging to provide public transport, housing, electricity, water and sanitation for a densely settled urban population than a dispersed rural population

Urban dwellers have access to larger and more diversified employment markets

Better levels of education and healthcare can improve the lives of the poor and empower women in countries where they do not have equal status

Megacities are centres of innovation where many solutions to global problems are being trialled

The growth of large urban areas can also fuel political pressure for change

Disadvantages of mega cities

Economic opportunities = magnet for migrant population. Inward movement upsets economic and social development and increases industrial pollution.

Services often concentrated in richer areas = slum areas inadequately served

Enormous environmental problems: waste, sewage, water shortage, air pollution, etc.

Migrants remain homeless and jobless. Lack of business and credit = problems. Large scale informal beggars = harassment (street children)

Dangerous, marginal land becomes shanty settlements

Social segregation and urban sprawl

Transport problems

World City

These are cities which have great influence on a global scale, because of their financial status and worldwide commercial power.

Globalisation

A set of processes leading to the integration of economic, cultural, political and social systems across geographical boundaries.

Alpha ++ cities

More integrated than all other cities and constitute their own high level of integration

Examples: London, New York

Alpha and Alpha - cities

Very important world cities that link major economic regions and states into the world economy

Examples: Mumbai, Chicago, Milan

Alpha + cities

Other highly integrated cities that complement London and New York, largely filling in advanced service needs for the Pacific Asia

Examples: Tokyo, Shanghai, Paris

Beta level cities

These are important world cities that are instrumental in linking their region or state into the world economy

Examples: Bangalore, Copenhagen, Rome, Lisbon

Gamma level cities

These can be world cities linking smaller regions or states into the world economy, or important world cities whose major global capacity is not in advanced producer services

Examples: Zagreb, Bristol

World City Criteria

Economic:
- Corporate HQ for major TNCs, banks, etc
- Significant financial output
- Stock market
- Personal wealth, e.g. % of million / billionaires

Political:
- Active influence on world events
- Hosting HQ for international organisations
- Very high % of the country's population
- A diverse population e.g. social groupings, ethnic mix
- Expatriate communities

Cultural:
- International first name familiarity
- Centre for international cultural events
- A number of influential media outlets located there
- Strong sporting community e.g. may host key sporting events
- Centre of education / research
- High tourism throughput
- May contain world heritage sites
- Symbolically important

Infrastructural:
- Advanced transport system
- Externsive mass transport e.g. port
- A major international airport
- Advanced digital communications network
- Centre of health network, research, etc.
- Prominent skyline e.g. skyscrapers
- Centre for a range of other key services

How are world cities resource centres?

- Cities grow because they are resource bases

- Companies need access to knowledge - in cities they find knowledge networks

- Knowledge leads to innovation and entrepreneurship

- 2 kinds of knowledge:
1) Codified knowledge which is carried and spread by technology so is available to anyone in the world
2) Tacit knowledge - this depends on discussion and face to face contact

How are world cities learning centres?

- When companies learn, they grow and develop

- Networks of learning consist of clusters of universities, other educational institutions, policymakers, research bases, etc.

- World cities may be seen as 'learning regions', 'smart cities', 'science cities', or 'creative hubs'

How are world cities centres of spatial proximity?

- Tacit knowledge is likely to develop in certain areas of cities such as CBDs, university campuses, science parks. These are cradles of innovation.

- Meetings and contacts spark new ideas. This is more likely to happen in an area with a high concentration of people and activities.

Europe's Urban Hierarchy

Cities compete and a hierarchy exists, this is particularly evident in Europe. In Western Europe, the only indisputable world city is London, with Paris perhaps also qualifying.

Below these come the national capital cities as well as a number of specialised cities which act as commercial or cultural capitals. They are all smaller, typically their metropolitan areas have populations between 1 million and 4 million.

Peter Hall called these national capitals and specialised cities sub-global cities.

These sub-global cities compete with the world cities in their specialised function, such as Brussels, Rome and Geneva for government, and Milan for design.

Urban morphology

The spatial structure and organisation of an urban area. Traditionally this may have been affected by physical factors such as relief and drainage.

Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI)

The main factor affected land use in high-income countries is land value and this is traditionally higher in the centre of a city where accessibility is greatest. The Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI) is the point with the highest land value and from here, land prices decline in line with the theory of distance decay.

It is usually only very profitable businesses such as large retailers that can afford the high prices of the PLVI. In UK cities, the site has often been occupied by the likes of M&S.