AQA A Level Psychology - Clinical Psychology + Mental Health

What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

• Statistical infrequency

• Deviation from social norms

• Failure to function adequately

• Deviation from ideal mental health

What is meant by statistical infrequency?

When behaviour is abnormal if its rare/unusual compared to most people

Based on the idea of normal distribution - few people at extremes, most people cluster around the middle - e.g. IDD (intellectual disability disorder)= IQ lower than 70

What is meant by deviation from social norms?

When behaviour goes against what is considered societally unacceptable

What is meant by failure to function adequately?

When a person is unable to cope with the stress/demands of everyday life

What is meant by deviation from ideal mental health?

When abnormality is defined by an individual not meeting the criteria for good mental health

• positive self-attitude

• resistance to stress

• autonomy

Evaluation of statistical infrequency: strength

P: A strength of the statistical infrequency definition is that it is objective because it uses quantitative data to identify abnormal behaviour

E: Behaviours are considered abnormal if they occur infrequently within the population, often using statistical norms. For example, an IQ below 70 is used as part of the diagnosis of intellectual disability

T: This makes the definition more scientific because decisions are based on measurable criteria rather than personal opinion. Consequently, psychologists can apply the definition consistently when assessing certain disorders. However, being statistically rare does not necessarily mean a behaviour is undesirable. Therefore, while statistical infrequency provides an objective starting point, it cannot define abnormality on its own

Evaluation of statistical infrequency: limitation

P: A limitation of statistical infrequency is that many statistically rare behaviours are not abnormal

E: For example, many individuals with a really high IQ are statistically uncommon, yet this is not a sign of a mental disorder

T: This demonstrates that a behaviour being rare does not mean that it is abnormal, because some uncommon characteristics may be positive. As a result, the definition may incorrectly label desirable behaviours as abnormal if statistical frequency is used alone. Therefore, statistical infrequency should be combined with other definitions when diagnosing psychological disorders

Evaluation of statistical infrequency: limitation

P: A further limitation is that statistical cut-off points are often arbitrary

E: There is no clear reason why an IQ of 69 is abnormal and an IQ of 70 is considered normal

T: This suggests that abnormality is present on a continuum rather than a clear divide. Consequently, strict cut-off scores may oversimplify individual differences and lead to inaccurate classifications. Therefore, statistical infrequency should be interpreted flexibly rather than as an absolute definition

Evaluation of deviation from social norms: limitation

P: A strength of deviation from social norms is that it identifies behaviours that may be a risk to the individual/others

E: Behaviours like persistent aggression/severe public indecency may indicate psychological disorder and need professional support.

T: This makes the definition helpful in clinical practice as it means psychologists can recognise when intervention may be required. Consequently, it has practical value in protecting both individuals + society. However, not all behaviour that breaks social norms indicates mental illness. Therefore, clinicians should be aware of other evidence when diagnosing abnormality.

Evaluation of deviation from social norms: limitation

P: A limitation of the deviation from social norms definition is that social norms are often unclear + hard to define

E: Social norms vary between different groups within the same society depending on factors like age, religion, occupation + social class

T: This means psychologists may disagree whether a behaviour actually deviates from accepted norms, reducing the reliability of the definition. As a result, the same behaviour may be judged as normal in one context but abnormal in another. Therefore, deviation from social norms lacks consistency as a definition of abnormality.

Evaluation of deviation from social norms: limitation

P: A further limitation is that deviation from social norms can be used to justify discrimination/social control.

E: Throughout history, behaviours that challenged accepted beliefs have sometimes been labelled as abnormal even if they caused no psychological harm

T: This causes ethical issues as powerful groups may define ‘normal’ behaviour in ways that reinforce existing social values. Consequently, individuals who simply behave differently may be unfairly stigmatised. Therefore, psychologists should be cautious when using social norms to define abnormality

Evaluation of failure to function adequately: strength

P: A strength of failure to function adequately is that it focuses on whether the individual is coping with everyday life

E: Rosenhan + Seligman identified characteristics like severe personal distress, unpredictability + an inability to maintain relationships as indicators of abnormality

T: This makes the definition person-centred as it considers the impact of behaviour on the individual’s daily functioning. Consequently, it is useful for identifying people who may need treatment. Therefore, it has lots of practical value in clinical settings.

Evaluation of failure to function adequately: limitation

P: A limitation is that deciding whether someone is functioning adequately depends on subjective judgement

E: Two psychologists may not agree about whether an individual’s behaviour significantly impacts their daily life

T: This reduces the reliability of the definition as different clinicians may reach different conclusions about the same person. Consequently, diagnoses may vary depending on the psychologist rather than the individual’s actual level of functioning. Therefore, subjective judgement limits the usefulness of this definition

Evaluation of failure to function adequately: limitation

P: A further limitation is that behaviour must be interpreted within its context

E: Someone may temporarily struggle to work/socialise after bereavement/another big life event without having a psychological disorder

T: This suggests that poor functioning is often a normal response to hard circumstances rather than evidence of abnormality. As a result, applying the definition without considering context may lead to inappropriate diagnoses. Therefore, clinicians should inspect the reasons for poor functioning before concluding that someone is abnormal

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health: strength

P: A strength of Jahoda’s definition is that it focuses on positive mental health rather than simply identifying illness

E: Jahoda proposed six characteristics of ideal mental health, including positive self-esteem, resistance to stress and autonomy

T: This provides a holistic understanding of wellbeing by noticing that good mental health involves more than the absence of psychological disorders. Consequently, the definition encourages psychologists to promote wellbeing as well as treat illness. Therefore, it offers a broader perspective than many other definitions

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health: limitation

P: A limitation is that very few people meet all six of Jahoda’s criteria

E: Most individuals experience stress/low self-esteem at some point without being mentally ill

T: This means that many psychologically healthy people would be classified as abnormal if the criteria were applied strictly. Consequently, the definition lacks validity as a diagnostic tool because its standards are too demanding. Therefore, Jahoda’s criteria are better viewed as ideals rather than requirements

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health: limitation

P: A further limitation is that ideas about ideal mental health differ across cultures

E: Jahoda’s criteria emphasises individual autonomy + personal achievement, values that are more common in Western individualistic cultures

T: In collectivist cultures, maintaining group harmony + family obligations may be considered more important than independence. Consequently, applying Jahoda’s criteria universally may unfairly classify people from different cultural backgrounds as lacking ideal mental health. Therefore, the definition may be culturally biased and should be interpreted within cultural context

What is a phobia?

Type of anxiety disorder characterised by an extreme + irrational fear of a specific object/situation

Not like a normal fear → interferes with daily life → fear is excessive/uncontrollable

What are the behavioural characteristics of a phobia?

• Panic - due to heightened physiological arousal - when encountering feared object/situation - crying, screaming, running away, etc.

• Avoidance - strong urge to avoid the phobic stimulus, maintains the phobia through negative reinforcement (avoiding what is unpleasant) → often leads to significant disruptions in normal daily routine + ability to function

• Endurance - remaining exposed to phobic stimulus for a long period of time, whilst experiencing lots of anxiety

What are the emotional characteristics of a phobia?

• Anxiety - intense, persistent dread + worry about feared object/situation - leads to high + persistent state of arousal - hard to relax/experience positive emotions

• Fear - intense experience of fear, linked to body’s fight/flight response - increased heart/breathing rate - only goes away when phobic object is removed

• Irrationality of fear/anxiety - individuals are often aware that their fear is excessive/unreasonable/level of anxiety caused is disproportionate to actual threat posed by the stimulus

Fear - shorter term response - according to what is there

Anxiety - longer term response - triggered by what might be

What are the cognitive characteristics of a phobia?

• Irrational beliefs - people with phobias think the object/situation is much more dangerous than in reality - results in lots of anxiety that cannot be easily reduced by reasoning

• Selective attention - focus is entirely on feared object/situation even when anxiety is excessive, ignoring other less threatening stimuli - impairing ability to focus on other tasks

• Cognitive distortions - patient’s perception of the phobic stimulus may be inaccurate

cognitive distortions - thinking habits

irrational beliefs - core assumptions driving these distorted thinking habits

What is Mowrer’s two process model of phobias?

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning