PSY 100 Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

Flashcards reviewing key introductory psychology concepts, historical and modern approaches, research methods, and threats to research validity.

How is psychology broadly defined?

The scientific study of human cognition and behavior.

What are the four main goals of psychology?

1. Describe: different ways in which organisms behave. 2. Explain: causes of behavior. 3. Predict: how organisms will behave in certain situations. 4. Control: an organism's behavior.

What is structuralism, and who founded the first experimental psychology laboratory?

Structuralism is the study of the basic elements (sensations and perceptions) making up conscious mental experiences. Wilhelm Wundt, considered the father of experimental psychology, opened the first lab for psychological research at the University of Leipzig in Germany in $1879$.

What is functionalism, and who is considered the father of modern psychology?

Functionalism studied the function rather than the structure of consciousness, focusing on how our minds adapt to changing environments (Darwinism). William James is considered the father of modern psychology.

What is the main idea behind the Gestalt approach to psychology, and what did Max Wertheimer propose?

The Gestalt approach states that perception is more than the sum of its parts and studies how sensations are assembled into meaningful experiences. Max Wertheimer said we strive for meaning or 'completeness' in our life and experiences.

What are the main tenets of the psychoanalytic approach?

Founded by Sigmund Freud, it proposes that early childhood experiences greatly influence development, unconscious drives/urges influence personality traits and psychological disturbances, and a struggle exists between the conscious and unconscious mind (id, ego, superego).

What does behaviorism emphasize, and what statement did John Watson make in $1924$ regarding human development?

Behaviorism emphasizes the objective, scientific study of observable behavior without reference to cause or underlying mental processes. In $1924$, John Watson stated that given a dozen healthy infants, he could train any one at random to become any type of specialist (e.g., doctor, lawyer, artist).

How does contemporary positive psychology relate to historical humanism?

Humanism emphasized human growth potential, while positive psychology is the empirical testing and application of earlier humanistic theories, focusing on human functioning to discover and promote strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

How do the behavioral and cognitive approaches differ in their study of human behavior?

The behavioral approach analyzes how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing ones depending on whether environments reward or punish them. The cognitive approach focuses on how we process, store, and use information, and how this influences perception, learning, memory, belief, and emotion.

What are the focus areas of neuroscience and sociocultural approaches?

Neuroscience examines how neural substrates of brain activity influence cognition and behavior. The sociocultural approach studies the influence of social and cultural factors on human thought and behavior.

What are the evolutionary and biopsychosocial approaches in psychology?

The evolutionary approach studies the evolution of behavior and mind using principles of adaptation and natural selection. The biopsychosocial approach is an integrated/hybrid approach incorporating biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe, after the fact, that one would have foreseen an outcome.

What are the steps of the scientific method in psychological research?

1. Review literature. 2. Formulate hypotheses. 3. Design study/experiment. 4. Collect and analyze data. 5. Draw conclusions. 6. Report findings.

What is the difference between a survey and a case study?

A survey obtains information from many individuals through self-reported responses via a fixed set of questions. A case study is an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, or behaviors of a single individual.

What defines an experiment, and why is manipulation necessary?

An experiment is a method in which one or more independent variables (IVs) are manipulated to predict dependent variables (DVs). Manipulation is required to use cause-and-effect language because correlation does not equal causation.

Based on the provided scatter plots, how are different types of correlation represented numerically and visually?

Correlation measures associations between variables: perfect/high positive correlations ($1$, $0.8$, $0.3$) slope upward left-to-right; zero correlation ($0$) displays scattered points with no linear direction; negative correlations ($-0.3$, $-0.8$, $-1$) slope downward left-to-right as variables move in opposite directions.

How do naturalistic and laboratory observational settings differ?

Naturalistic observation records behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control. Laboratory observation uses systematic and controlled conditions where real-world influences are eliminated.

What is the difference between validity and reliability in research findings?

Validity refers to whether a tool measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability refers to whether the research findings can be replicated.

What are three major threats to validity described in psychological research?

1. Reporter bias: inaccurate perceptions, dishonest responses, or socially desirable answers. 2. Self-fulfilling prophecies: strong beliefs that cause a person to behave in a way that fulfills those beliefs. 3. Placebo effect: change in condition attributable to an imagined treatment rather than an actual one.