Mid Time Period 2 Key Concepts

How did Land-Based empires expand their territory in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.

What issues and causes were at the root of conflict between Land-Based Empires circa 1450-1750?*

From 1450 to 1750, land-based empires often fought over territory, valuable trade routes, religious disagreements, and the desire for more power. For example, the Moroccan empire used gunpowder weapons to invade the Songhai empire to take control of its trade routes. 

1453 CE (HUB Date)

During this time, the Ottomans seized Constantinople. This the beginning of the era of Land-Based empires using gunpowder and other methods to expand and maintain control of their empires. Here, the Muslim Ottoman, push into the Christian European continent demonstrating the supremacy of Muslim technology.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Empire rose in the 14th century, expanding through military conquest and alliances to fill a power vacuum left by the decline of the Mongols. By the 16th century, it controlled vast territories across Anatolia, southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. While known for its diversity, the empire was predominantly populated by Sunni Muslims. 

Describe the rise and expansion of the Mughal Empire.

The Mughal Empire was founded in northern India in the 16th century by Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan. Ruling as a Sunni Muslim government over a predominantly Hindu population, successive emperors expanded the empire across the Indian subcontinent through military conquest, diplomatic alliances, and administrative reforms. This expansion led to a flourishing cultural and economic center and was managed, in part, by adopting periods of religious tolerance. 

Describe the rise and expansion of the Russian Empire.

After achieving independence from Mongol rule in the late 1400s, Moscow, under leaders like Ivan the Terrible, centralized authority over Russian lands, expanding through military conquest and diplomacy. Moscow became the capital of the new Russian empire, and its rulers adopted the title of "czar", signifying their claim to divine right to rule. By the 17th century, Russia began eastward colonization into Siberia. 

Describe the rise and expansion of the Safavid Empire.

The Safavid family established control over Persia (modern-day Iran) in the early 16th century, declaring Shi'a Islam the official state religion, distinguishing it from Sunni neighbors like the Ottomans. Safavid shahs strengthened central authority and modernized the military, enabling competition with adversaries and fostering trade, although the empire faced continuous conflicts.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Manchu Empire (Qing Dynasty).

The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Empire, was established in the 17th century when the Manchu tribes conquered the Ming Dynasty. Considered a foreign dynasty by the majority Han Chinese population, the Qing expanded its territory to its greatest extent, incorporating areas like Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan. It became one of the largest empires in history before its collapse prior to World War I.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based Empires use to administer (run) their government in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based Empires relied on centralized bureaucracies staffed by appointed officials as well as the development of military professionals to administer their governments efficiently. These officials were tasked with tasks such as tax collection, law enforcement, and infrastructure development, enabling rulers to maintain control over their vast territories and diverse populations. For example, The Devshrime System staffed for an imperial bureaucracy with highly trained people, and most were slaves.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to legitimize and justify their power in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based empires in the period circa 1450-1750 often used religious ideologies, such as divine right or the mandate of heaven, to justify their authority. Additionally, they used elaborate court rituals, patronage of the arts, and monumental architecture to visually demonstrate their legitimacy and power to their subjects and neighboring states. For example, the Sun Temple of Cuzco was built to faciliate worship festivals and maintain/legitimize power.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to raise money to pay for their expansion in the time c. 1450-1750?*

Rulers of Land-Based empires in the period circa 1450-1750 used various methods to raise funds for their expansion, including taxation (tax farming), tribute from conquered territories, and state monopolies on key industries. They also often engaged in warfare and conquest to seize additional wealth and resources from neighboring regions, further financing their expansionist ambitions. For example, Mughal zamindar tax collection appointed Mughals to collect tax, they were mainly peasants who appointed 1/3 of crops.

Describe the Renaissance.

The Renaissance was a European cultural rebirth (1300s-1500s) inspired by Greco-Roman classics, fostering individualism and secular thought. This revival was enabled by knowledge preserved in the Islamic world and global connections fostered by the Mongol Empire. 

Describe the Protestant Reformation and its consequences.

The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in the early 16th century, shattered the unity of the Catholic Church and gave rise to new Protestant denominations. This religious schism led to a series of religious conflicts, such as the devastating Thirty Years' War, and had profound political and social effects. The upheaval challenged the Catholic Church's authority, fostering an increased emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture and contributing to the rise of nation-states, as political leaders often exploited the religious divisions to centralize their own power. 

1618-1648 (HUB Date)

Thirty Years War - European War between Christianity & Ottoman Safavid War (1623-1639). While this represents an ongoing wars of land-based empires, it also represents conflict between schisms within Christianity and Islam. The Thirty Years War was a long lasting conflict between Catholics and Protestants while the Ottoman-Safavid War was a struggle between Sunni and Shi'a.

How did Sikhism develop in South Asia (modern-day India) in the time c. 1450-1750?

Sikhism developed in South Asia in a context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam.

What were the original sources of the innovations that made Europe's Age of Exploration possible?

Classical (Greco Roman), Islamic, and Asian worlds spread their knowledge, scientific learning, and technology facilitating European technological developments and innovation.

What were some of the maritime technologies that helped usher in Europe's Age of Exploration?*

The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and current patterns--all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible. For example, the lateen sail was a triangular sail that took wind from both sides and could be used to travel farther and expand trade routes.

Describe Portugal's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Portugal's government, in response to being denied access to overland trade routes by the Ottoman Empire, funded the development of navigational technology. This enabled them to establish a trading-post empire by creating small port cities along the coasts of Africa and India, which allowed them to access the valuable goods of the Indian Ocean Trade Network.

Describe Spain's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

After the Christian reconquest of Spain, the government funded voyages led by figures like Columbus, establishing colonies in the Americas. This state-sponsored exploration fueled a surge of European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

Describe the English and French role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

English and French government-sponsored expeditions across the North Atlantic aimed to find alternative routes to Asia. They eventually established colonies in North America and the Caribbean islands. The French focused mainly on the fur trade in what would become Canada, while the English established settlement colonies along the eastern coast of what would later become the United States.

Describe the Dutch role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750 c. 1450-1750.

During 1450-1750, the Dutch played a significant role in maritime exploration, establishing trading posts and colonies across Asia and Africa. Utilizing their advanced naval technology and economic ingenuity, the Dutch East India Company became a dominant force in spice trade.

1492 CE (HUB Date)

Columbus sailed the "Ocean Blue". Represents the beginning of the era of Maritime empires looking to the ocean to establish new trade routes to access the traditional long-distance trade routes. This begins the slow rise of European political, economic and military power across the globe.

Describe the Columbian Exchange.

The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres resulted in the exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases, known as the Columbian Exchange. This is not an economic trade route, it is an environmental exchange.

Describe the role that disease played within the Columbian Exchange.

European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease carriers, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were normal in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas.

Describe the role of crops & animals of the Americas played within the Columbian Exchange.*

American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Diets, life expectancy and standard of living improved in various parts of Afro-Eurasia. For exanple, potatoes were easy to grow and could survive in harsh climates.

Describe the role that crops & animals of Afro-Eurasia played within the Columbian Exchange.*

Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by African slaves. Sheeps were brought from the east to the west and ate grass which led to erosion.

Describe the migration of humans as part of the Columbian Exchange.

In the early stages of the Columbian exchange, migration occurred on two fronts. Europeans migrated to the Americas in search of new opportunities. Cash crops, like sugar, were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor in the form of African slaves. Very few people migrated from the Americas to Afro-Eurasia.