Understanding Memory, Encoding, and Problem Solving

Cognition

Thinking and mental processing (e.g., memory, decision-making, problem-solving, etc.).

Encoding

Bringing in information and processing it.

Storage

Holding information over time.

Retrieval

Locating and pulling information into consciousness.

Structural Encoding

Processing what a stimulus looks like.

Phonemic Encoding

Processing what a stimulus sounds like.

Semantic Encoding

Processing the meaning of a stimulus.

Elaborative Encoding

Making connections between new information and existing knowledge.

Levels of Processing Model

Deeper encoding improves memory.

Information Processing Model

Memory involves sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Sensory Memory

Immediate, very brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory (~1/10 second).

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory (~3-4 seconds).

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds information temporarily (~20 seconds) with a capacity of 7 ± 2 items.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity, stored permanently with semantic encoding.

Central Executive

Manages other memory components.

Phonological Loop

Briefly holds auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Briefly holds visual and spatial information.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids involving imagery or associations.

Spacing Effect

Distributed practice improves long-term retention.

Self-Referent Encoding

Relating new information to personal experiences.

Schemas

Mental frameworks for categories, events, or experiences.

Semantic Networks

Integrated webs of related information.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memories.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

Facts and general knowledge.

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

Unconscious memories.

Procedural Memory

Skills and habits.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of emotionally significant events.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying information from an array of options.

Priming

Activating associated memories unconsciously.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall in the same environment where learning occurred.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall in the same physiological state as learning.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Better recall of experiences matching one's current mood.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall of the first items.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of the first items.

Recency Effect

Better recall of the last items.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Partial retrieval of information.

Constructive Memory

Filling gaps with existing knowledge.

Misinformation Effect

Memory altered by misleading information.

Forgetting Curve

Most forgetting happens quickly; memory stabilizes over time.

Encoding Failure

Information was never encoded into LTM.

Decay

Memory fades over time without use.

Retroactive Interference

New information impairs old memory.

Proactive Interference

Old information disrupts learning new information.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of pre-amnesia memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories post-onset.

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of synaptic connections with practice.

Hippocampus

Memory consolidation.

Amygdala

Emotional memories.

Prefrontal Cortex

Working memory and decision-making.

Concepts

Grouping similar objects or ideas.

Prototypes

Best example of a category.

Schemas

Mental representations for understanding information.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only for their common use.

Fixation

Inability to view a problem differently.

Mental Set

Using past strategies even when ineffective.

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods guaranteeing a solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts for quicker decisions.

Availability Heuristic

Decisions based on easily recalled information.

Representative Heuristic

Decisions based on prototypes.

Overconfidence

Overestimating accuracy of beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

Thinking you 'knew it all along.'

Confirmation Bias

Seeking information that supports beliefs.

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing random events 'correct' themselves.

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning (e.g., 'cat-s' has 2 morphemes).

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning from words.

Syntax

Rules for structuring sentences.

Cooing

Giggling and gurgling (1.5-3 months).

Babbling

Repeating syllables (6-10 months).

One-Word Stage

Naming objects (12-18 months).

Telegraphic Speech

Simple two-word phrases (18-24 months).

Subject-Verb-Object Stage

Simple sentences (2+ years).

Overextension

Using a word too broadly.

Underextension

Using a word too narrowly.

Overregularization

Applying grammar rules incorrectly (e.g., 'I goed').

Critical Period

Optimal time for language development; limited after early childhood.