Imperialism, Nationalism, and Modernization in East Asia: China and Japan

Qing Dynasty

The last dynasty 1644-1912

Opium War

Starting in late 1700’s, British merchants began smuggling opium into China

By 1835, 12 million Chinese were addicted

Qing Dynasty protested, but Britain refused to stop selling opium

1839-Naval war broke out🡪 Britain’s superior navy defeated China’s 🡪two humiliating peace treaties

opium trade continued trade expanded to further ports Britain given island of Hong Kong Europeans given “extraterritorial rights” = foreigners not subject to Chinese law

Taiping Rebellion

Mid-1800’s—Social problems within China + failure of the Qing dynasty to resist Western powers🡪 dissatisfaction with Qing

In the 1850s, there was a rebellion led by Hong Xiuquan He wanted to create a heavenly society with no poverty His followers formed the Taiping Rebellion (Taiping = “great peace’)

1864--Defeated by Qing, British, and French troops at least 20 million died in rebellion

IMPORTANCE = showed declining power of Qing

European Imperialism in China: Spheres of Influence

Imperialism in China different than Africa or India

Europeans did not directly take over territory; instead had “spheres of influence”

Spheres of influence = area within China where an outside country controlled trade

Britain, France, US, Germany, Japan, Russia

Boxer Rebellion

Anger at foreign economic domination 🡪 1900 Boxer Rebellion

Seized Beijing for several months

Chinese Christians attacked

European/Japanese armies put down rebellion

IMPORTANCE = increased nationalist desire to rid China of foreigners and to have gov’t more responsive to population’s needs

1911 Revolution against Qing- Sun Yat-sen

Chinese radicals called for overthrow of Qing Dynasty

Sun Yat-sen most important radical

leader

Nationalist = wanted unified China independent of foreign powers, wanted democracy, called for overthrow of Qing, rule by nationalist political party

The Republic of China

1911—military officers revolted against Qing, declaring republic in 1912

Peace talks led to resignation of Qing emperor, creation of “Republic of China”

Would last until Communist takeover in 1949

How was imperialism in China different than in Africa/India? How was it similar?

China - spheres of influence rather than direct colonial rule, imperial powers exploited trade through unequal treaties like the Treaty of Nanjing, opposition came through rebellions

India - the British had direct control, rebellion but peacful

Africa, imperial powers divided the continent, India and Africa, imperialists focused on resource extraction, resistance varied, with prolonged military conflicts

Similarities

In all three regions, imperial powers used economic and military strength to dominate trade and exploit natural resources.

Unequal Treaties & Forced Trade

Imperialism weakened local economies, led to social unrest, and planted the seeds for future independence movements.

What were the three principles of Sun Yat-sen’s political vision for China?

Radical nationalism

Democracy

Socialist lifestyle

Commodore Perry/The Black Ships

1603-1867

Japan’s emperor a figurehead, no real power

Japan ruled by military generals = “shoguns”

Tokugawa clan ruled until 1603-1867

US used threat of force to open trade 1853, 1854 – Commodore Perry of the US Navy brought warships to Japan

under threat, Japan allowed US access to two ports in 1854 and five more in 1858

Like China, Japan had to agree to “extraterritoriality”—foreigners not subject to Japanese law

Meiji Restoration

Many Japanese felt humiliated by terms imposed by US🡪 the emperor (previously only a figurehead) took control of

Japan from the shogun (military leader) in 1868 Known as “Meiji Restoration” b/c emperor took name “Meiji” meaning “enlightened rule”

1868-1912- Emperor Meiji ruled Japan

Believed Japanese weakness was due to clinging to traditional ways

Wanted to modernize Japan like

the West

gov’t officials sent to US/Europe to learn about Western society, all children required to attend school

Meiji Constitution

Meji Reforms

Political -feudalism ended, adopted European style constitution

Economic - rapid industrialization

Military - developed modern military on a European model

POLITICAL-Meiji Constitution

established in 1890-1947

effectively made Japan a constitutional monarchy

Emperor had highest power, shared power with a legislature, judicial system established, established certain rights for people

ECONOMIC- Industrialization

Japan adopted Western methods of industrialization

Built infrastructure (factories, roads, bridges), National railway, National currency

Led to massive economic growth and industrialization, Between 1895-1915 factory production grew more in Japan than US

MILITARY - Success

Modeled military on Britain and Prussia’s

Required 3 years of service from all men

1870’s-forced Korea to open ports to Japanese trade, even though Korea was allied with China

1895-Defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War

Japan’s Rise as a Great Power/1st Sino-Japanese War

Victory against China 🡪 Japan the most powerful Asian country

Japan gained control of Taiwan from China, was able to build factories in China, Western powers ended extraterritoriality

Russo-Japanese War

1905-Defeated Russia in Russo-Japanese War

Japan gained control of Russian railway lines in Manchuria (part of China), took control of two Russian ports in Manchuria

Treaty of Portsmouth

The Treaty of Portsmouth officially ended the Russo-Japanese War.

Russia recognized Japan’s control over Korea.

Russia ceded southern Sakhalin Island to Japan.

Russia transferred rights to Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.

Both sides agreed to withdraw troops from Manchuria, restoring it to Chinese control.

Japan gained control of the South Manchurian Railway, giving it economic dominance in the region.

Japan originally demanded monetary compensation, but Russia refused.

This caused protests in Japan, as many Japanese citizens felt the treaty was too lenient.

How was imperialism in Japan different from imperialism in Africa/India? How was it similar?

Japan Was an Imperialist Power, Not a Colony

Imperialism in Africa and India focused on resource extraction, economic exploitation, and political control. Japanese imperialism was driven by the need for raw materials, security, and national prestige to sustain industrialization and protect itself from Western domination.

Methods of Imperial Control

In Africa and India, direct colonial rule was imposed, Japan used military conquest and puppet governments

European powers often segregated themselves from colonized populations and imposed their own cultures.

Japan, attempted to assimilate its colonies, forcing them to adopt Japanese language, education, and customs.

Similarities

used military force to expand their empires.

racial superiority

Economic Exploitation

Like Europeans in Africa and India, Japan exploited its colonies for resources

Japan also forced local labor in its colonies, similar to European practices in Africa

Colonized regions under both Japan and European rule resisted imperial control.

nationalist movements that sought self-rule.

resistance movements fought against the occupation.

How did the Meiji constitution show the influence of Western ideas?

It resembled the constitution of the U.S and France.

It took inspiration

How did the Meiji government demonstrate its military strength in the 1 st Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War? What were the consequences of Japan’s victory in each war?

1st Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

Japan had modernized its military based on Western technology and tactics, while China’s army remained outdated.

Consequences of Japan’s Victory:

Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)

China recognized Korea’s independence, removing it from Qing control.

Japan gained Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula

China paid a huge war indemnity, further weakening the Qing Dynasty.

Weakened China, Leading to Internal Unrest

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)

Japan launched a surprise attack on Port Arthur, showing strategic planning and aggression.

• Japan’s army won key land battles in Manchuria, forcing Russia to negotiate peace.

Consequences of Japan’s Victory:

Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

First Time an Asian Nation Defeated a European Power

It inspired anti-colonial movements in Asia, showing that Western dominance was not absolute.