Metabolism

Respiration and phot synthesis

How does cyanide effect NADH

NADH will accumulate since the ctyesol is blocked stopping the flow of electrons and protons throught he protien channels. this block stops nadh from oxodizing into NAD+, accumulating instead

Relationship between ETC Oxygen and Cyanide

cyanide block etc whihc stops the production of electrons and protons that would normaly be mopped up by oxygen for water. Because of this, oxygen has no effect on the situation.

DNP effect on ATP

atp will decrease since the protons no longer need to move throught he atp synthase

what aeffect does cyanide have on cellular respiration

1. Cyanide inhibits Cytochrome C, so the electron cannot be passed to oxygen. The cells cannot generate ATP which causes energy depletion in the cells, leading to death

what can be observed about how DNP alters the glucose consumption and ATP production? Why does there need to be more glucose oxidation? Explain in terms of oxidation/reduction and ATP generation.

1. DNP lowers ATP (energy levels) and increases glucose oxidation (rate of glycolysis - sugar breakdown). Due to DNP making holes in the inner membrane, the body is trying to compensate for the lack of ATP synthesis - still not sufficient

DNP basically pokes a hole in the inner membrane, allowing protons to move more freely. How will this new hole affect ATP production?

1. Poking a hole in the inner membrane would be protons would be able to escape freely without passing through ATP synthase which is needed for ATP production 

what is th eprefered types of molecules that are broken down to provide atp?

• Preferred types of molecules broken down to provide ATP are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

explain ATP coupling

ATP Coupling: ATP coupling refers to the process where ATP is used to drive an energetically unfavorable reaction by coupling it with a favorable reaction. This ensures that the energy released from the favorable reaction is used to drive the unfavorable one.

What is the name of high energy molecule used in living systems? What are the preferred types of molecules that are broken down to provide these energy molecules?

ATP, water

Explain what happens when ATP hydrolyzes into ADP + Pi. How much energy is released? Is this process reversible? Does the reverse process release energy?

57kj/mol , is reversibale indeed, required energy to be put into the system to be completed though

is atp stable? what happens if it is not used quikly

atp is not stable, if not used quickly atp will hydrolyze into adp and pi releasing heat.

explain an example of energy coupling

atp will hydrilyze and pi will attach to the Na+/k+ pump, phorphlyration triggers a conformational change in which the pump unbinds the Na+ ions and releases them into the extracellular fliud. This is change allows the pump to bind more potassium and release the phosphate molecule. that phospahete release triggers the pump to release potassium into the cell.

What is phosphorylation? What is the difference between substrate phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

• Phosphorylation:Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule, often a protein, to activate or deactivate it.

• Substrate Phosphorylation vs. Oxidative Phosphorylation: Substrate phosphorylation occurs in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, where ATP is directly synthesized from ADP. Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the mitochondria, involving the electron transport chain to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

what is metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms to maintain life. It involves processes like converting food into energy, building and repairing tissues, and eliminating waste products.

what is autotroph

An autotroph is an organism that can produce its own food using energy from sunlight or inorganic compounds. Autotrophs are also known as producers in the food chain.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants use the sun's energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.

what is cyclic electron flow?

a process in photosynthesis where electrons cycle back to the photosystem I, generating ATP but not NADPH. No oxygen is made since no water is used in the process nor is photsystem II engaged

Why to c4 plantsrequire more ATP?

There are more chemical steps in a c4 plant’s calvin cycle in de-sequestering c4, there for they will need more energy or ATp to do so

Formula for Photosymtheiss

Formula for Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

What are the 5 aspects of a chlorplast?

1. Thylakoid membrane: Site of light-dependent reactions.

2. Stroma: Contains enzymes for light-independent reactions.

3. Granum: Stack of thylakoids.

4. Chlorophyll: Pigment for photosynthesis.

5. Inner and outer membranes: Surround the chloroplast.

Redox reactions

Reactions in which one molecule is oxidized (loses electrons) and another is reduced (gains electrons), involving the transfer of high-energy electrons.

In what cellular organell does photosymthesis take place?

Chloroplast

Where does stage 1: light dependent reaction take place

Thylakoid

What happens in stage 1: light dependent reaction of photsysmthesis?

sun oxidises water to make atp and NADPH

Stage 2: light independent reaction

Occurs int he stroma, ATP and NADPH used ti incoporate CO2 into Glucose (Clavin benson cycle)

Light dependent reaction is split into which 2 stages?

Photsystem II and Photosystem I

Explain Photo system I

water oxidized by sunlight
releases h+ and O2 and ekectrons
e released move ot reaction center
electrons excited by light jump to electron transport chain
e moving cause h+ ions to build up in thaylakoid
H+ ions expcaoe through channel protien and make ATP int he process

Photlysis

Process of sunlight breaking apart water int he thalakoin photosystem one stage 1 photosysnthesis light independent reaction, in which hydrogen and electrons are released to produce atp and NADPH and oxygen is released for us to breath

What si the Reaction center made up from?

Chlorphyll molecules and enzymes

What is storedint he reaction center when light excited eectrons leave?

More elctrons repleace the leaving electron from photolysis

What si the elctron transport chain?

series of protiens

where are the hydrogen attoms atrracted byt he electrons in th trasnport chain coming from?

stroma, this makes a gradient (build up)

how does H+ ions leave the thylakoid?

passively through channel with atp enxyme synthase that amkes ATP

Explain photosystem I

electrons and H+ ions form water reduce NADP+ to NADPH. Mops up free H+ ions and elctrons to convert NADP+
electrons from photosystem ii travel through transport chain to photosystem i reaction center
excited by light again
captured by another transport chain to reduce NADP

where does atp and NADPH go fromt he thylakoid?

stroma for calvin cycle

What are he 3 stages fif th calvin cycle?

carbon fixation
reduction
regeneration

why is the calvin cycle sometimes refered to as the Dark Reaction?

Calvin Cycle is called the Dark Reaction because it doesn't require direct light and can occur in the absence of sunlight, unlike the light-dependent reactions.

Explain stage 1 of the calvin cycle

1 co2 + Rubulose biphospate [Rubisco enzyme]
6-c [SPlits into 2 3-c molecules]
2 3-phospiglycerate (PGA) [ phosphoglycerte is the 3-c]

in reality is 3- co2 that goes in for one calvin cycle menaing 6PGA is made

1 co2 → 6 interme → 2pga

Explain stage 2 of the clavin cycel

2 PGA [ATP added]
2 1,3-bisphosphoglycertae [NADPH added]
2 phosphogercarldehyde (PGAL) also known as GA3P

3co → 6pga → 6pgal

what si the building blck of glucose?

1 PGAL makes ½ of a glucose

whata re many of teh PGAL molecules used to make besides glucose?

used to make more Ribulose Bisphopahte so that there is always substrate to fix more carbon

3 co2 makes 6PGAL only 1 of which actually stays to make glucose, other 5 are used to make ribulose bisphophate

What sit eh 3rd stage of clavin cycle?

regenration fo ribulose biphospa=hate from 5/6 of the PGAL made

what can sometimes hapen int he calvin cycle that is not ideal?

Photrespiration

Explain photo respiration

sometimes rubisco uses o2 insteadof co2 which is wasteful sicne it cannot make glucose

what 2 factors determine rubisco’s use of co2 or o2

Lo temperation and High CO2 vs O2 concentration results int he regular calvin cycle

High temperature and low Co2 vs O2 cocnetration results in photrespiration

why does photo respiration happen

whne stomata are opejin cool environemnts, the o2 and h20 can escape but if they stay closed like in hot environments this foces and increase in o2 concentration unless the plants have special features

List the special features of plants that can avoid photrespiration in hot environemnts

C3 is NOT a special feature plant. most of the plants we eat from are c3. Oxygen acts as a competititve inhibitor for rubisco

Chloroplast

The organelle in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place, containing chlorophyll for capturing sunlight.

ATP Synthase

An enzyme that facilitates the production of ATP by allowing protons to flow back into the stroma from the thylakoid space.

NADPH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an electron carrier molecule that plays a crucial role in transferring electrons during photosynthesis.

Reaction Center

A complex of chlorophyll molecules and enzymes in photosystems where light energy is absorbed and used to excite electrons for further reactions.

GA3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

Another name for phosphoglyceraldehyde, a key molecule in the Calvin Cycle used as a building block for glucose.

Photorespiration

A wasteful process where Rubisco uses oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, reducing the efficiency of the Calvin Cycle.

C3 Plants

Plants that use the Calvin Cycle without any special mechanisms to reduce photorespiration, such as rice, wheat, and potatoes.

C4 Plants

Plants that have evolved a modified pathway to minimize photorespiration by physically separating carbon dioxide from oxygen before entering the Calvin Cycle.

c02 is turned into a C-4 compound and sequestered to deeper tissue away from oxygen. and hten in released to undergo calvin cycle

CAM Plants

Plants adapted to arid environments that store carbon dioxide as a 4-carbon compound during the night for use during the day when stomata are closed.

makes stores of 4-c compounds.

all photo synthetic organisms have which pigmen?

Chlorphyl A: violet blue(400-450 nm) red-orange (650-700nm)

Absorption Spectrum

The range of wavelengths of light that a pigment can absorb.

Paper Chromatography

A technique used to separate pigments based on their polarity and size using a solvent and paper.

Aerobic Respiration

The process of cellular respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen, producing a maximum of 38 ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration

The process of cellular respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen, producing only 2 ATP and a toxic by-product.

Un coupled

protien channel in the inner mitochondrial emmeberane allows protons to flow without atp synthase generating heat. (hibernation)

anaerobic detail

anaerobic respiration stops at glycolisys. in animals the 2 pyruvate are reduced into 2 lactate or lactic acid. in yest makes 2 acetaldehyde and then ethanol. in both cases nadh is oxidized when makinf pyruvate and reduced when the cycle repeats

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells generate ATP for energy, typically by breaking down glucose and releasing electrons.

Glycolysis

The first stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvate. hAPPENS IN THE CYTOPLASM

glycolisis in more detail

gluecose resarranged and 2 phsapahte groups attached - from atp (2 atp used)
Fructose 1,6-bisphopate untable and splits into 2 pgal molecules
each PGal arranged into 1 pyruvate molecule→ 2 atp and 1 NADH are made per Pyruvate
total: 4 ATP NET 2 ATP AND 2NADH AND 2 PYRUVATE

Pyruvate Oxidation

The process where 2 pyruvate molecules are converted into 2 acetyl CoA molecules. In mitochondrial matirx

Citric acid cycle detail

Acetyl coA (2-c -CoA) attached to oxaloacetate (4-c)
CoA released and attached to another Pyruvate, 6-C citrate created
Nad is reduced to NADH and 6-c loses one carbon to CO2 gass
Nad reduced agan and Co2 released again
4-c reduces, Nad, Fad and GDP no Co2 made
4-c reused to make citrate
Total: 2 co2 released 3 Nadh, 1 Fadh and 1 ATP made (plus one oxaloacetate)

Citric Acid Cycle

Also known as the Krebs cycle, it is where acetyl CoA enters and produces 2 ATP, CO2, NADH, and FADH2. in mitochondrial matirx

Electron Transport Chain

The final stage of aerobic respiration where electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 produce a large amount of ATP. 34
in the inner mitochondrial emmeberane

ETC in detail

Electrons from NADH/FADH2 are dropped off at early rpoties on ETC.
energy of electrons used to pump attract h+ into th eintermemebrane space making proton gradient.
h+ ions are pumped back into mitochondrial matrix through atp synthase.
protons provide energy through atp Synthase which adds a 3rd phosphat to adp.

what does oxygen do for ETC

mops up electrons and hygrodgens at the end of etc to make water. without it the grdient would not coninue and etc and atp production would stop.

Nadh vs FADH2

nadh drop off lectrons at complex 1 vs fadh at complex 2. complex 1 cna suhhtle protns while complex 2 cannot. Nadh therefore yeilds more atp than fadh2 (3vs 2)

ATP cylce

adenin ribose and diphospahte get another phosphase from energy absorbtion (from food) making ATP and loose it when enegery is released for the cell

cristae

cristae are folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria that increase surface area for chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration.

A by-product of anaerobic respiration in animal cells.

Lactic Acid

A by-product of anaerobic respiration in yeast cells.

Alcohol

NADH

An electron carrier that delivers electrons to the electron transport chain, produced in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

FADH2

Another electron carrier that delivers electrons to the electron transport chain, produced in the citric acid cycle.

ATP Synthase

An enzyme complex in the inner mitochondrial membrane that produces ATP by utilizing the proton gradient generated in the electron transport chain.

Uncoupling Proteins

Proteins that allow protons to flow back into the mitochondrial matrix without passing through ATP synthase, generating heat instead of ATP production.

Phosphofructokinase

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in glycolysis.

Fat as Fuel

Describes the process where lipases break down fatty acids into glycerol and Acetyl CoA molecules for energy production in cellular respiration. glycerol makes PGAL and fatty acid tails makes acetyl CoA

Protein as Fuel

Proteases break peptide bonds of proteins to liberate aminoacidsn
Deaminases remove amino group from amino acids,releasing toxic ammonia, which is removed in urinen
Remainder of amino acid (mostly C, H, O) is rearranged intopyruvate or Acetyl CoA, to enter cellular respiration

How muhc atp is made from protien or fat as fuel?

Still 38 just not from glucose