UNIT 1 AP PSYCH REVIEW

Heredity (Nature)

The genetic inheritance of traits that influence physical characteristics, behaviors, and mental processes.

Environmental Factors (Nurture)

External influences on behavior and mental processes, such as upbringing, social interactions, education, and culture.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The ongoing discussion about the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on human development and behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological approach that explains behavior and mental processes as adaptations that evolved to increase survival and reproductive success.

Natural Selection

The process by which inherited traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations.

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of heredity and environment.

Adoption Studies

Research comparing adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to determine the influence of genetics vs. environment.

Family Studies

Research examining behavioral similarities among family members to explore hereditary and environmental influences.

Eugenics

The unethical practice of applying evolutionary principles to promote selective breeding, often leading to discrimination.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates all bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; relays messages between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses (increased heart rate, energy).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after stress, lowering heart rate and promoting relaxation.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information throughout the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Support cells that provide structure, insulation, and waste removal for neurons.

Reflex Arc

Automatic response to a stimulus involving sensory, motor, and interneurons.

Dopamine

Involved in movement, reward, and motivation; linked to Parkinson's and schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep; low levels linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Involved in alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response.

Glutamate

Main excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter; regulates anxiety and calms neural activity.

Endorphins

Natural pain relievers that create pleasure and reduce pain.

Substance P

Involved in transmitting pain signals.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Involved in muscle movement and memory; linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Carry information from senses to the CNS.

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

Carry information from CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neuron either fires at full strength or not at all.

Depolarization

Change in neuron's charge that leads to an action potential.

Refractory Period

Brief time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

State when neuron is not firing.

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Threshold

Minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increase likelihood of a neuron firing.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Decrease likelihood of a neuron firing.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Triggers fight-or-flight, increases heart rate and energy.

Leptin

Regulates hunger and helps control body weight.

Ghrelin

Stimulates hunger.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

Linked to bonding, trust, and social connections.

Agonist

Increases neurotransmitter activity by mimicking or enhancing effects.

Antagonist

Blocks or decreases neurotransmitter effects.

Reuptake Inhibitor

Blocks reabsorption of neurotransmitters, prolonging effects.

Stimulants

Increase neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Depressants

Decrease neural activity (e.g., alcohol).

Hallucinogens

Distort perception and cognition (e.g., LSD).

Opioids

Act as pain relievers (e.g., heroin).

Tolerance

Needing more of a drug for the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive craving despite negative consequences.

Withdrawal

Symptoms experienced when stopping drug use.

Brain Stem

Controls automatic survival functions like breathing and heart rate.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Regulates arousal and attention.

Brain's Reward Center

Involved in pleasure and reinforcement (dopamine release).

Cerebellum

Controls balance, coordination, and procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

Responsible for complex thinking and voluntary movements.

Limbic System

Involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Thalamus

Relays sensory information to appropriate brain areas.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature; links nervous and endocrine systems.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland controlling hormone release.

Hippocampus

Forms new memories.

Amygdala

Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

Connects brain hemispheres.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information.

Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information and language comprehension.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory info and spatial awareness.

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes touch and bodily sensations.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for higher-order thinking and decision-making.

Prefrontal Cortex

Controls planning, judgment, impulse control.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Broca's Area

Speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Speech comprehension.

Consciousness

Awareness of thoughts, feelings, and surroundings.

Circadian Rhythm

Body's natural 24-hour cycle.

Jet Lag

Disruption of circadian rhythm due to travel.

Shift Work Disorder

Sleep disruption from irregular work hours.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Consolidation Theory

Sleep strengthens and organizes memories.

Restoration Theory

Sleep restores energy and repairs tissues.

EEG

Measures brainwave activity.

NREM Sleep

Non-REM sleep; stages 1-3, slower brainwaves.

Stage 1

Light sleep; may include hallucinations or falling sensations.

Stage 2

Deeper sleep; sleep spindles.

Stage 3

Deepest sleep (slow-wave), important for restoration.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement; vivid dreams, muscle paralysis.

REM Rebound

Increase in REM sleep after deprivation.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Acting out dreams.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing stops and starts during sleep.

Somnambulism (Sleepwalking)

Performing activities while asleep.

Sensation

Detecting environmental stimuli and converting them to neural signals.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum level of a stimulus to be detected 50% of the time.

Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Weber's Law

JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

Sensory Adaptation

Sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli.

Sensory Interaction

One sense influences another (e.g., taste and smell).

Synesthesia

One sensory experience triggers another (e.g., seeing colors when hearing music).