AP Psychology Ultimate Review Flashcards

A vocabulary-style flashcard set covering the five core units of AP Psychology, including research methods, biological bases, cognition, development, social psychology, and clinical psychology.

Experimental Research

The only research method that can establish a cause and effect relationship by manipulating an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is intentionally changed or manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured to see if it was affected by changes in the independent variable.

Confounding Variables

Factors other than the independent variable that could potentially impact the dependent variable, which must be controlled for in experimental design.

Random Assignment

The procedure of randomly placing participants into either the experimental group (receiving treatment) or the control group (no treatment) to ensure group differences are due to the independent variable.

Placebo Effect

Phenomenon where results are due to a participant's belief that they are receiving a treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Double Blind Study

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know which group the participants have been assigned to.

Operational Definition

A specific, detailed description of how a variable will be measured in a study, allowing for the research to be replicated.

Replication

The process where other researchers repeat a study using the same procedures to see if they obtain similar results.

Hypothesis

A researcher's prediction about the relationship between variables that must be falsifiable.

Correlational Research

Non-experimental research that examines the relationship between two variables without manipulation; it cannot establish causation.

Third Variable Problem

A problem in correlational research where an observed relationship between two variables might be caused by a third unmeasured variable influencing both.

Correlational Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies on the same topic to reach a general conclusion.

Random Sampling

A selection process where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected, resulting in a representative sample.

Sampling Bias

Occurs when the process of selecting a sample group is flawed, such as when certain members of a population are selected more often than others.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variation that indicates how spread out data points are from the mean.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode are all located at the center.

Effect Size

Indicates the strength of the relationship between variables; small is generally around $.2$ or below, while large is $.8$ or greater.

Statistical Significance

Indicates that the results of a study are likely due to the variables being studied and are not likely due to chance.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that acts as the body's 'gas pedal,' activating the fight or flight response, increasing heart rate, and dilating pupils.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that acts as the body's 'brake pedal,' calming the body down to return to homeostasis (rest and digest).

Glial Cells

Cells in the brain that support neurons through protection and nourishment but do not process neural information.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

Neurons that bring incoming sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

Neurons that send outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles.

All-or-None Principle

The concept that a neuron either fires completely with full strength or does not fire at all.

Re-uptake

The process where excessive neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the sending (presynaptic) neuron.

Limbic System

A system in the brain involved in emotion, memory, learning, and motivation; includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Hippocampus, and Amygdala.

Broca’s Area

A region typically in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production; damage leads to difficulty getting words out.

Wernicke’s Area

A region typically in the left hemisphere responsible for speech comprehension; damage leads to nonsensical fluent speech.

Absolute Threshold

The smallest amount of stimulation needed for an individual to notice a sensation at least $50\%$ of the time.

Weber Fetchner Law

Principle stating that for a difference between two stimuli to be noticed, they must differ by a constant percent rather than a constant amount.

Rods

Photoreceptors located in the periphery of the retina that detect shapes and movement in low light but do not process color.

Cones

Photoreceptors located in the fovea that process color and fine detail.

Top-Down Processing

Perception driven by internal prior expectations, experiences, and knowledge to fill in sensory blanks.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one specific voice or sound in a noisy environment while filtering out background noises.

Algorithms

Problem-solving strategies that attempt all possible solutions until the correct one is found, ensuring accuracy at a slower pace.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that allow for quick judgments but may lead to errors.

Long-term Potentiation

The process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger through frequent activation, facilitating learning.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason quickly and solve abstract problems; typically declines with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulated knowledge and verbal skills built throughout life; remains stable or increases with age.

Flynn Effect

The observation that IQ scores around the world have generally increased over time due to better nutrition, healthcare, and education.

Teratogens

Harmful substances, such as drugs or alcohol, that can negatively impact prenatal development.

Zone of Proximal Development

The sweet spot between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable person.

Scaffolding

The support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner achieve a task within their zone of proximal development.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when one's actions and attitudes are in conflict, motivating a change in either to reduce tension.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

The body's three-phase response to stress, consisting of alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.

Diathesis Stress Model

Suggests that psychological disorders develop due to a combination of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and stressful life experiences.

Positive Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Symptoms added to a person's experience that shouldn't be there, such as delusions and hallucinations.

Negative Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Characteristics absent from typical behavior, such as flat affect (lack of emotional expression) or catatonic stuper.