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-carries information between organs and CNS
-nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord
conducts nerve impulses away from cell body toward other neurons or to effectors
-formed by Schwann cells
-only in PNS
-glistening white coat of fatty protein that acts as insulator
-speeds up nerve impulse by causing Saltatory conduction (making it jump)
-gaps in the myelin sheath
-speeds up nerve impulse by causing Saltatory conduction (making it jump)
-thin outer membrane that surrounds axons
-only in PNS
-promotes regeneration
-formed by Schwann cells
-found in all PNS nerve cells
chemicals that are released from the presynaptic neuron and then diffuse across synaptic space and causes the postsynaptic neuron to depolarize
combination of excitatory responses to trigger an 'all' response
-excitatory neurotransmitter for muscles
-can be inhibitory in some locations
involved in fight or flight response and wakefulness
-inhibitory nerotransmitter
-breaks down acetycholine to 'reset' the synapse
-carries sensory information to brain and information from the brain to motor neurons
-contains white matter (myelinated nerves) and grey matter (unmyelinated nerves)
the largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
-maintains Homeostasis (Autonomic)
-connects to Pituitary gland
-divided into left (logical) and right (artistic) hemispheres
-largest part of the brain
-many folds to allow for more neurons
bundle of nerves that connects left and right side of brain
Functions:
-higher level thinking
-personality
-motor movements
-located at the back of the head
Functions:
-vision
Functions:
-hearing
-smell
-memory
-interpretation of sensory information
-located at the top of the head
Functions:
-touch
-taste
-temperature
-pain
-emotions
a brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the Medulla
-brings information about body's internal environment to CNS
-regulates by carrying signals from CNS to muscles and organs
-composed of two divisions
-bring information from external environment to CNS and send information back to muscles
-voluntary EXCEPT for reflex arcs
-outer layer
-protection
-maintains shape
-middle layer
-pigmented to prevent light from scattering
-contains blood vessels
-the transparent outer covering of the eye
-requires oxygen and nutrients from aqueous humor
-innermost layer
-contains light-sensitive photoreceptor cells called rods and cones
-black and white vision
-contains light-sensitive photoreceptor cells called rods and cones
-peripheral vision
-work well in low light intensity
-colour vision
-requires bright light
-concentrated in the Fovea Centralis
-3 types (red, green, blue)
-small depression
-most sensitive
-packed with cones with rods surrounding perimeter
-location of the optic nerve and blood vessels connecting to eye
-no room for photoreceptors causing a blind spot on the retina
-lens becomes opaque and prevents light from passing through
-buildup of aqueous humor in anterior chamber
-caused from blocked drainage duct and retinal cell slowly dies from pressure
-results in vision loss
ear flaps of cartilage
-funnels sounds to ear drum
-has specialized sweat glands produce war wax
-three tiny bones in the middle ear
-specialized sweat glands produce war wax
-allows for air pressure equalization
-connected to throat
-for balance
-3 fluid-filled rings arranged in different angles
-movement of fluid identifies body movement
-shaped like snail shell
-vibrations are converted into nerve impulses by organ of Corti
-comprised of rows of hair cells
Schwann Cell
-Glial cell
-non-conducting
-form the Myelin sheath
Negative Feedback
a self-regulating system in which the output is fed-back to reduce further output
Tropic Hormones
hormones that target other endocrine glands
Pituitary Gland (“The Master Gland”)
-located right below the Hypothalamus
-produces and stores hormones
Hypothalamus
-composed of an anterior and posterior lobe
-stimulate the Pituritary gland to release hormones
Pancreas
contains 2 types of cells:
1. cells that produce hormones (Insulin and Glucagon) which are located in structure called islets of Langerhans
2. cells that produce digestive enzymes
Insulin
-lowers blood sugar
-causes all cells to becomes permeable to glucose
-glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles
-antagonistic to Glucagon
Glucagon
-raises blood sugar
-glycogen is broken down and releases glucose in the liver and muscles
-antagonistic to Insulin
Diabetes Mellitus
-chronic disease caused by insufficient production or use of Insulin
-3 main types
Symptoms:
-Hyperglycemia: high blood sugar
-glucose in urine and high urine production
-will feel thirsty and tired
Adrenal Medulla
-regulated by nervous system
-produces Epinephrine and Norepinephrine which both increase blood sugar and heart rate
-stimulated by Sympathetic nervous system
Adrenal Cortex
-regulated by hormones
-produces Aldosterone and Cortisol
Aldosterone
-increases blood volume and pressure
-reabsorbs sodium to increase water reabsorption
-used during long term stress
-targets Kidney tubules
Cortisol
-targets all cells
-increases blood glucose due to fats and proteins broken
Epinephrine
-targets liver, muscles and heart
-increases blood glucose due to converted glycogen
-increases heartrate
-increases blood flow to muscles
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
-targets Adrenal Cortex
-initiates long term stress by causing the release of Cortisol and Aldosterone
Metabolism
-chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain life
Thyroid
-produces Thyroxin and Calcitonin
Throxine
-increases metabolism and regulates growth
-main hormone that controls metabolism
Calcitonin
-lowers blood calcium levels
-causes bones to store calcium by removing from the blood
-sourced by the Thyroid gland
Goiter
-caused by a lack of iodine in the diet
-no negative feedback so TSH continues to be released causing thyroid to enlarge
Hyperthroidism
-excessive secretion of Thyroxin
-can be caused by an autoimmune disease called Graves disease or an overactive thyroid
Symptoms:
-high body temperature
-high blood pressure
-weight loss
Hypothyroidism
-low secretion of Thyroxin
Symptoms:
-lethargy in adults
-dwarfism in infants
-low metabolism (weight gain and chills)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-increases calcium in the blood
-sourced by the Parathyroid gland
Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
-released from the anterior pituitary gland
-targets most cells to stimulate growth
-breaks down fat
-increases blood glucose levels to support growth
-cells grow larger and faster
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
-reduces water loss in urine when dehydrated
-produced by the Hypothalamus but stored in the posterior pituitary
-release stimulated by osmoreceptors
Blood Sugar
-glusose found in the blood
-controlled by 2 Endocrine glands (Pancreas and Adrenal glands)
Osmoreceptors
-in the Hypothalamus
-detect dehydration in the blood and cause the release of ADH and the feeling of thirst
-shrink through osmosis = stimulation
Ganglia
clusters of cell bodies outside spinal cord
Medulla Oblongata
coordinating centre for autonomic nervous system
Note 
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