Psychology, Chapter 2 Biology and Behavior Vocabulary

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neurons

specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical signals in the body

<p>specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical signals in the body</p>
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neuroscience

the study of the brain and other parts of the nervous system

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biological psychology

the branch of psychology that focuses on how the brain and other biological systems influence human behavior

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phrenology

an early approach to explaining the functions of the brain by trying to link the physical structure of the skull with a variety of characteristics

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cell body

the region of the neuron that includes structures that nourish the cell, and a nucleus containing DNA

<p>the region of the neuron that includes structures that nourish the cell, and a nucleus containing DNA</p>
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dendrites

tiny, branchlike fibers extending from the cell body that receive messages from other neurons and send information in the direction of the cell body

<p>tiny, branchlike fibers extending from the cell body that receive messages from other neurons and send information in the direction of the cell body</p>
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axon

skinny tube like structure of a neuron that extends from the cell body and sends messages to other neurons and sends information in the direction of the cell body. (not all axons are myelinated)

<p>skinny tube like structure of a neuron that extends from the cell body and sends messages to other neurons and sends information in the direction of the cell body. (not all axons are myelinated)</p>
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myelin sheath

a fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds the transmission of neural messages.

<p>a fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds the transmission of neural messages.</p>
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synapse

the place where the axon terminal of a sending neuron meets the dendrite of a neighboring neuron or other type of cell receiving its signal; junction between neurons where communication occurs

<p>the place where the axon terminal of a sending neuron meets the dendrite of a neighboring neuron or other type of cell receiving its signal; junction between neurons where communication occurs</p>
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glial cells

cells of the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

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resting potential

the electrical potential of a cell "at rest"; the state of a cell when it is not activated

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action potential

the spike in voltage that passes through the axon of a neuron, the result of which is to convey information

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all-or-none

a neuron either fires or does not fire; action potentials are always the same strength

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neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate at the synapse

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receptor sites

locations on the receiving neuron's dendrites where neurotransmitters attach.

<p>locations on the receiving neuron&apos;s dendrites where neurotransmitters attach.</p>
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reuptake

a process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending axon terminal

<p>a process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending axon terminal</p>
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sensory neurons

neurons that receive information from the sensory systems and convey it to the brain for further processing

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motor neurons

neurons that transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

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interneurons

neurons that reside exclusively in the brain and spinal cord; act as a bridge connecting sensory and motor neurons

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reflex arc

an automatic response to a sensory stimulus, using a simple pathway of communication from sensory neurons through interneurons in the spinal cord and back out through motor neurons

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nerves

bundles of neurons that carry information to and from the central nervous system; enable communication between the central nervous system and the muscles, glands, and sensory receptors.

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somatic nervous system

the branch of the peripheral nervous system that includes sensory nerves and motor nerves; gathers information from sensory receptors and controls the skeletal muscles responsible for voluntary movement.

<p>the branch of the peripheral nervous system that includes sensory nerves and motor nerves; gathers information from sensory receptors and controls the skeletal muscles responsible for voluntary movement.</p>
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autonomic nervous system

the brance of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary processes within the body, such as contractions in the digestive tract and activity of glands.

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sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the "fight-or-flight" response to stressful or crisis situations.

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parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that orchestrates the "rest-and-digest" response to bring the body back to a noncrisis mode.

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endocrine system

the communication system that uses glands to convey messages by releasing horomones into the bloodstream.

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horomones

chemical messengers released into the bloodstream that influence mood, cognition, appetite, and many other processes and behaviors.

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pituitary gland

the small endocrine gland located in the center of the brain just under the hypothalamus; known as the master gland.

<p>the small endocrine gland located in the center of the brain just under the hypothalamus; known as the master gland.</p>
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thyroid gland

the endocrine gland that regulates the rate of metabolism by secreting thyroxin

<p>the endocrine gland that regulates the rate of metabolism by secreting thyroxin</p>
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adrenal glands

endocrine glands involved in response to stress and the regulation of salt balance.

<p>endocrine glands involved in response to stress and the regulation of salt balance.</p>
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cerebrum

the largest area of the brain, includes virtually all parts of the brain except the brain stem structures; has two distinct hemispheres

<p>the largest area of the brain, includes virtually all parts of the brain except the brain stem structures; has two distinct hemispheres</p>
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corpus callosum

the thick band of nerve fibers connecting to the right and left cerebral hemispheres; principal structure for information sharing between the two hemispheres

<p>the thick band of nerve fibers connecting to the right and left cerebral hemispheres; principal structure for information sharing between the two hemispheres</p>
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split brain operation

a rare procedure used to disconnect the right and left hemispheres; involves cutting the corpus callosum

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lateralization

the idea that each cerebral hemisphere processes certain types of information and excels in certain activities

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broca's area

a region of the cortex that is critical for speech production

<p>a region of the cortex that is critical for speech production</p>
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wernicke's area

a region of the cortex that plays a pivotal role in language comprehension.

<p>a region of the cortex that plays a pivotal role in language comprehension.</p>
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neurogenesis

the generation of new neurons in the brain

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stem cells

cells responsible for producing new neurons

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cerebral cortex

the wrinkled outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for higher mental functions, such as decision making, language, and processing visual information.

<p>the wrinkled outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for higher mental functions, such as decision making, language, and processing visual information.</p>
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frontal lobes

the area of the cortex that directs higher-level cognitive activities, such as language, emotions, control of social behavior, and decision making.

<p>the area of the cortex that directs higher-level cognitive activities, such as language, emotions, control of social behavior, and decision making.</p>
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parietal lobes

the area of the cortex that receives and processes sensory information such as touch, pressure, temperature, and spatial orientation.

<p>the area of the cortex that receives and processes sensory information such as touch, pressure, temperature, and spatial orientation.</p>
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occipital lobes

the area of the cortex in the back of the head that processes visual information

<p>the area of the cortex in the back of the head that processes visual information</p>
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temporal lobes

the area of the cortex that processed auditory stimuli and language

<p>the area of the cortex that processed auditory stimuli and language</p>
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motor cortex

a strip of brain tissue toward the rear of the frontal lobes that works with other brain regions to plan an execute voluntary movements

<p>a strip of brain tissue toward the rear of the frontal lobes that works with other brain regions to plan an execute voluntary movements</p>
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association areas

regions of the cortex that integrate information from all over the brain, allowing us to learn, think in abstract terms, and carry out complex behaviors.

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limbic system

a collection of structures that regulates emotions and basic drives such as hunger, and aids in the creation of memories

<p>a collection of structures that regulates emotions and basic drives such as hunger, and aids in the creation of memories</p>
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thalamus

a structure in the limbic system that processes and relays sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cortex

<p>a structure in the limbic system that processes and relays sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cortex</p>
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hypothalamus

a small structure located below the thalamus that maintains the internal environment within a healthy range; helps regulate sleep-wake cycles, sexual behavior, and appetite

<p>a small structure located below the thalamus that maintains the internal environment within a healthy range; helps regulate sleep-wake cycles, sexual behavior, and appetite</p>
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amygdala

a pair of almond-shaped structures in the limbic system that processes aggression and basic emotion such as fear, as well as associated memories.

<p>a pair of almond-shaped structures in the limbic system that processes aggression and basic emotion such as fear, as well as associated memories.</p>
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hippocampus

a pair of sea-horse shaped structures located in the limbic system; primarily responsible for creating new memories.

<p>a pair of sea-horse shaped structures located in the limbic system; primarily responsible for creating new memories.</p>
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forebrain

the largest part of the brain; includes the cerebrum and the limbic system.

<p>the largest part of the brain; includes the cerebrum and the limbic system.</p>
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midbrain

the part of the brainstem involved in levels of arousal; responsible for generating movement patterns in response to sensory input.

<p>the part of the brainstem involved in levels of arousal; responsible for generating movement patterns in response to sensory input.</p>
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reticular formation

a network of neurons running through the midbrain that controls levels of arousal and quickly analyzes sensory information on its way to the cortex.

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hindbrain

includes areas of the brain responsible for fundamental life-sustaining processes

<p>includes areas of the brain responsible for fundamental life-sustaining processes</p>
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pons

a hindbrain structure that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and coordinate movement between the right and left sides of the body

<p>a hindbrain structure that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and coordinate movement between the right and left sides of the body</p>
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medulla

a hindbrain structure that oversees vital functions, including breathing, digestion, and heart rate.

<p>a hindbrain structure that oversees vital functions, including breathing, digestion, and heart rate.</p>
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cerebellum

a hindbrain structure located behind the brainstem that is responsible for muscle coordination and balance; Latin for "little brain"

<p>a hindbrain structure located behind the brainstem that is responsible for muscle coordination and balance; Latin for &quot;little brain&quot;</p>
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Terminal buttons (axon terminals)

Transmit signal to the next neuron

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Node of Ranvier

A gap in the myelin sheath

<p>A gap in the myelin sheath</p>
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Acetylcholine (ACh)

Relays messages from neurons to muscles, enabling movement (botulism [e.g., Botox] inhibits release of ACh) Too much = spasms; too little = paralysis Low levels in the brain linked to Alzheimer’s disease

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Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter (e.g., MSG) Plays a central role in learning and memory Too much = strokes; too little = symptoms of schizophrenia

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Inhibitory neurotransmitter Plays role in controlling sleep, wakefulness, and intoxication

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Epinephrine (adrenaline)

energy

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Norepinephrine

Prepares the body for stress. In the brain, norepinephrine is involved in regulating arousal and sleep. High levels could lead to overarousal and hypervigilance.

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Endorphins

A group of naturally produced opioids Released in response to pain and block pain receptor sites Also released with brisk exercise (e.g., “runner’s high”)

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Serotonin

Helps control appetite, aggression, and mood, and regulates sleep and breathing. Abnormally low activity is thought to drive depression. SSRIs help boost the effects of serotonin.

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Dopamine

Emotional arousal (fear, anxiety), motivation/reward (hunger, thirst, sex), pleasure, drug abuse (e.g., cocaine and amphetamines) Plays a key role in attention, learning through reinforcement, and regulating body movements Parkinson’s disease is linked to a deterioration of neurons that produce dopamine.

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