pretty mutch all defenitions of the module

questions/ revition of defenitions and cytokines , innate and adaptive , antibody, Bacteri Metabolisom parocites, , Immune Organs,Microbial,0Viral Diseases and Global Health ,Immunisation and Vaccination,

Opportunistic Infection

An infection caused by organisms that are typically harmless but can cause disease when the immune system is weakened or barriers are breached.

what is biofilm

A structured community of microorganisms encased in a self-produced matrix, adhering to surfaces and exhibiting increased resistance to antimicrobials.

what is Dysbiosis

An imbalance in the body's microbial communities, often in the gut, leading to reduced diversity and potential health issues.

What are antigens?

Foreign molecules that trigger an immune response.

What are cytokines?

Signaling proteins that regulate immune responses between cells.

Signaling proteins that regulate immune responses between cells.

They destroy virus-infected and tumor cells.

What is pleiotropy in cytokines?

One cytokine has different effects on different cell types.

What is immune response regulation?

Mechanisms that balance immune activation and prevent overreaction

What is the role of cytokines like TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and IL-6 in the immune system?

These cytokines are involved in inflammation and fever, helping coordinate the immune response to infection or injury.

How do memory cells contribute to the adaptive immune response?

Memory cells provide long-lasting immunity by allowing the body to mount a faster and more effective response upon re-exposure to a pathogen.

What is the primary role of Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs)?

Type 2 ILCs are important in anti-parasitic responses, especially in the lungs and gut.

What is the function of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in the immune system?

PRRs are responsible for recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on pathogens and triggering the immune response.

How can immune system variability influence mate selection?

Individuals may prefer mates with different immune gene repertoires to enhance the immune diversity and health of their offspring, promoting species survival.

What are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)?

PAMPs are conserved molecular features of pathogens recognized by pattern recognition receptors on immune cells, triggering innate immune responses.

What is class switching, and why is it important?

Class switching is the process by which B cells change the constant region of the antibody, allowing it to take on different functions without altering its antigen specificity.

Define antigen in the context of the immune response.

An antigen is any substance, such as a protein or carbohydrate, that elicits an immune response and can be specifically recognized by an antibody.

What is the function of antibodies in the immune system?

Antibodies recognize and bind to antigens to neutralize pathogens, opsonize them for phagocytosis, or activate the complement system.

What is ATP and what role does it play in cells?

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency in cells, storing and transferring energy required for various cellular activities.

Define metabolism in the context of biological systems.

Metabolism refers to all chemical processes within a cell, including both catabolic and anabolic reactions, that are essential for energy production and the synthesis of necessary compounds.

What is bioremediation and how do bacteria contribute to it?

Bioremediation is the use of bacteria to detoxify and remove environmental pollutants through metabolic processes, such as the breakdown of heavy metals and hydrocarbons.

What are anabolic reactions?

Anabolic reactions are processes that build complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input, often supplied by ATP.

Explain the function of enzymes in metabolism

Enzymes catalyze metabolic reactions by lowering the activation energy, and their activity is regulated to ensure efficiency and balance in metabolic pathways.

What is the main limitation of pasteurization?

It does not kill all microorganisms, such as spores.

What is the difference between sterilization and disinfection?

Sterilisation kills all forms of microbial life, including spores, while disinfection only kills most microorganisms.

What is the role of autoclaves in sterilization?

Autoclaves use steam under pressure to sterilize equipment by killing all microbial life.

What is the impact of antibiotic misuse in agriculture?

It contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance.

Why are room-temperature antibiotic tablets important for global access?

They are easier to store and transport, enhancing accessibility in low-resource regions.

What is the function of the spleen in the immune system?

To filter blood and trap pathogens.

What is thymic education?

The process by which T cells are trained to recognize dangerous and harmless antigens.

What are high endothelial venules (HEVs)?

Specialized post-capillary venules that allow lymphocytes to enter lymph nodes.

What are the basic components of a virus?

Genetic material (DNA or RNA) and a protein capsid.

What is the difference between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses?

Enveloped viruses have a phospholipid bilayer surrounding the capsid, while non-enveloped viruses only have the capsid on the outside.

What is the role of the capsid in a virus, and what is it made of?

The capsid is a protein coat that surrounds and protects the genetic material of a virus. It is made of individual protein units called capsomeres.

What is the role of antibodies in the immune response?

Antibodies recognize and bind to antigens to neutralize pathogens, opsonize them for phagocytosis, or activate the complement system.

What is passive immunization?

Passive immunization involves giving pre-formed antibodies to a person currently suffering from an infection.

How do maternal antibodies provide immunity?

Maternal antibodies provide passive immunity to the fetus and newborn baby for the first few months of life.

What is the first class of antibodies produced after exposure to an antigen?

The first class of antibodies produced is usually IgM.

What characterizes the secondary immune response?

The secondary immune response is characterized by a higher magnitude of IgG antibodies and a quicker response time.

What is the role of B cells in the immune response?

B cells produce antibodies and turn into memory cells, providing long-term immunity.

Why are live attenuated vaccines problematic?

Live attenuated vaccines can sometimes become virulent again and cause disease.

How are inactivated vaccines produced?

Inactivated vaccines are produced by treating the pathogen with heat or chemicals until it dies.

What is the function of adjuvants in vaccines?

Adjuvants trigger pattern recognition receptors to drive co-stimulation, enhancing the immune response

hat is the significance of memory B cells in vaccination?

Memory B cells provide long-term immunity by quickly producing antibodies upon re-exposure to the antigen.