Social and cultural anthropology- week 2

Prehistoric period

10,000 BCE- 3,500 BCE

• Settlement of all five continents by humans over 12,000 years ago 

• Completion of global dispersion by south american nomads 

• Migratory achievements of siberian ancestors crossing the bering strait 

• Early contact among hunter-gatherer bands

Rise of farming societies (9,000 BCE onwards)

Rise of farming societies

9,000 BCE onwards

Transition from nomadic to settled tribes around 12,000-10,000 years ago 

Factors influencing agricultural settlement locations- regions ideal for agricultural development 

Food surpluses, population growth, and the rise of the permanent villages 

Transition from decentralized hunter-gatherer groups to centralized, stratified societies 

Emergence of craft specialists, priests, bureaucrats, and soldiers 

Centrally administered agriculture, religion, bureaucracy, and warfare as agents of social exchange 

Premodern period and the rise of early trade and globalization (3500 BCE- 1500 CE)

• Invention of writing and the wheel (3500-2000) BCE 

• Technological advancements 

• Prehistory- before writing. 

• Improvements in technological warfare, other advancements allowed for conquering of peoples around them 

Herodotus

• 5th century BCE 

  • ‘Father of history’; first detailed descriptions of other cultures; observed diversity in race, language, and culture; relatively objective, humanistic 

  • Greek philosopher

  • Quite objective and humanistic, relatively not biased

Zhang Qing

• 1st century BCE 

  • Initiated Silk Road, connecting East and West trade for cultural exchange, trade 

  • First charted and begin taking journey of silk road

  • Silk road incredibly important- lasted centuries, helped spread black plague, re initiated again and again throughout history. Current leader of china is very much concerned with chinas position on world stage, has a initiative called silk road 2.0 

Early cross cultural contact and study 

• Middle ages- 5-15th century CE 

  • Biblical scholarship 

• Abu Rayhan al-Biruni- 11th c. CE- conducted comparative studied of religion and culture in the Middle east and south asia 

• Marco Polo travels along the silk Road- 13th/14th century CE

Age of “discovery” -15th - 17th century - exploration and exploitation 

• Sea travel increased 

• First wave of european colonization 

  • Colonies established in india and SE asia, trans atlantic slave trade begins (16th century) 

• Trade in goods, spices, and precious metals= massive wealth for colonizers and elites 

• Exchange of ideas, knowledge (especially botany, zoology); viewed non european people as different species, primitive, savage, “other”, etc. (continued exploitation) 

Curio Cabinets (*cabinet of curiosities) 

C. 16th century-collections of exotic objects from natural history (such as fossils, fauna skulls), cultural objects. Human remains, art. Antiquities, kept by rulers and other lites as a sign of social rank and entertainment. Precursor to museums

• People would have parties and talk about them- mostly entertainment.

Scientific revolution (16th and 17th century) 

Following Copernicus challenging Geocentrism>> Kepler laws, Galileo, Newtons laws changed view of universe, scientific methods.

Age of enlightenment- 18th century- The philosophers 

• Try to understand human nature through reason rather than religion 

• Rousseau's “noble savage”: The idea that in their natural state, humans from different cultured deemed “brutal savages” possess inherent goodness and virtue; urban civilization make people bad 

• Challenged eurocentric view that they were good and other cultures/ people were naturally inferior 

• But myth of noble savage also stereotypes, romanticized and misrepresent indigenous peoples

• Locke’s “Tabula Rasa” (blank slate theory): Suggested that individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds are born with minds like ‘blank slates’, and their cultural experiences and environments shape their beliefs and behaviors (culture is learned; enculturation) 

• Important because it contributes to definition of culture and ide of enculturation 

Age of enlightenment- 18th century, science and observation 

• Roots of anthropology and other social sciences in enlightenment era 

• Systematic study of human behavior and ancient civilizations, classics, egyptology, languages etc. 

1800’s - further development of science, scientific methods and institutionalization of social sciences 

Armchair anthropology (19th century) 

• Theorizing about non europeans by relying on existing written accounts and selecting those that fit preconceived ideas 

• Upper class ‘gentleman naturalists’ (gentlemen- didn't get their boots dirty

• No direct contact with people they studied 

• Tylor- promoted theories of cultural evolution= cultures move through three specific stages of progression: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Founder of armchair anthropology. Insp[ired by darwin and herbert spencer 

Early anthropology (19th- early 20th century) 

• Non european cultures viewed as “the other”, “primitive” stage in the evolution of human society 

• Early anthropologists were heavily influenced by the enlightenment ideal of progress 

• Classification, ranking, collecting, cataloging etc. of cultures. 

• Curio cabinets- continued, controversy 

• Other cultures studied as one, the lower stage of the model, not given the attention they deserve originally. Studied as if they were going to disappear, and become the higher culture- as if studying their own origins. 

Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford University 

• Founded in 1884 when the university accepted gift of over 20,000 artifacts from Lt. Augustus Pitt rivers, a british army officer, ethnologist and archeologist 

• Influenced b cultural evolutionism, he organized things by type and in sequence of development 

• IS this oxofrds own cabinet of curiosities 

• Have things changed? 

Scientific racism (18th, 19th- early 20th century) 

• The misuse of scientific methods to support ideologies often used to justify discrimination and colonialism 

• Anthropologists helped perpetuate racist ideas an stereotypes through their studiies and pseudoscientific methods & techniques like phrenology anf rcaial typology- discussed next week! 

Oceania

Oceania was one of the last regions to be explored and colonized by europeans (18th- early 20th century) 

The indigenous peoples of oceania are aboriginal australians, Papuans, and Austronesians (Melanesians, Micronesians, and Polynesians) 

• Because they were free of contact with europe for so long compared to other places, it was of great interest to early arm chair anthropologists and archaeologists. Basically seen as human laboratories, their practices and adaptations to long distanced sea voyages and such were of great interest to these early scientists. 

• Two island in particular; Torres strait islands, Trobriand islands (?) 

• Typically colonized a lot, missionaries accompanied explorers

• Lots of interest in these islands, people would document the practices of these people and the profit off them (made movies, essentially documentary clips with additional storytelling which misrepresented them)

 Pearls and savages (1921, Frank Hurley) 

• Adventure science genre 

• Popular screenings; entertainment and education 

• Some scenes staged, creating debate over authenticity, misrepresentation 

• Also controversial for taking hundreds of cultural objects, including sacred materials. From indigenous peoples. 

• Cred primarily about profit, not about accurately educating people about these cultures

• observations-Music is juvenile, make their practices seem more juvenile/ childlike. Trivializes practices, descriptions say these are dances, games, etc. Furthers the perception that these individuals/ islanders aren't very complex. 

Icons of 20th century Anthro

 Bronisław Malinowski  

• Changed the Frank hurley-an way of documenting/ viewing these people

Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922)- pioneering fieldwork from 1915 to 1918 in Trobriand Islands, Kula ring economic exchange 

• Pioneered participant observation- an ethnographic method blending “insider” subjective participation with “outsider” Objective observation 

• Long term cultural immersion

• Ended up spending years, kinda by accident, with these islanders. But that allowed him to learn that the long term observation/ participation gave better insight into these people. 

• Famous for anthropological methods and attempts at unbiased analysis of Trobriand islanders’ culture 

• Infamous for personal diaries (1967) in which he expresses ethnocentric views and racist disdain for what he described as ‘doglike’ natives, Released post humously (about 25 years after his death), contrary to the pretty objective way he wrote about them in his published works. Reads very desperate. Down bad 

• Legacy; pioneering of these methods but also held these ethnocentric views which later coloured some of his views 

Franz Boas

• Considered ‘father of american anthropology’ 

• Holistic approach: emphasized studying cultures as integrated wholes 

• Historical particularism: Stressed the unique history and environmental  context of each culture 

• Fieldwork and participant observation: Encouraged firsthand engagement and dep cultural understanding

• Worked in baffin (1883) and closely with the Kwakiutk people of the pacific northwest coast (BC) 

• Cultural preservation: His research helped preserve Kwakitl cultural heritage by documenting their customs, language, art, traditions 

• Cultural relativism: He advocated understanding cultures on their own terms In their own context, promoting cultural relativism and challenging ethnocentrism 

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to view one's own culture as important and correct and as a stick by which to measure all other cultures i.e. the thinking that our own customs are normal while others are strange, wrong, or disgusting 

Cultural relativism

The idea that we should seek to understand another person's beliefs and behaviors from the perspective of their own culture i.e. the idea that all cultures are equally valid; beliefs and behaviors can only be understood in their own context. 

• Different cultures have different beliefs, so what gives us the right to judge the behaviour of other people in a world where moralities often conflict? If different cultures have different moral codes and sense of right and wrong, does that mean i have to agree that these practices are morally right (NO)

  • Slavery 

  • Female Genital operations (FGOs) 

  • Forcible marriage of minor girls 

  • Cannibalism  

Not moral relativism

• Emphasized understanding and cultural context for studying cultures but does not entail value judgements about other cultures or that individuals must abandon their own moral principles 

• One can understand a practice within its cultural context without morally agreeing with it 

• While cultural relativism recognizes the diversity of cultural practices, it does not negate the existence of universal human rights 

• Cultural practices are not beyond ethical scrutiny when they conflict with universal human right or principles of justice 

Example: Female Genital Operations/ Cutting (FGOs/ FGCs)  (cultural relativism is not moral relativism

• Ellen Gruenbaum and Henrietta L. Moore 

• How do some anthropologists reconcile cultural relativism & anti ethnocentrism with the quest for equality and young girls in  these situations? 

• People going in with campaigns to stop these practices often actually increased them cause people were scared they would be stamped down on, they were done mor ebut hidden 

• Gruenbaum and Moore found that it was more successful to try to educate about the downsides of these practices (ex; long term infection) 

Also: 

• How different is this to male circumcision? To aesthetic changes like breast augmentation, which might be as horrific to people from these cultures ? 

Cultural relativism today

Has evolved since Boas’ time. Cultural relativism is an important methodological consideration when conducting research 

• It is not a doctrine but a rule of thumb (brown 2008) 

• Anthropologists practice methodological (‘descriptive’) relativism in the field: ‘the practice of suspending judgment until a belief or practice can be understood within its total context 

• This can be a challenging task, particularly when a culture is significantly different from the one ion which they were raised/ socialized 

• Our goal is understanding not approval 

Icons of 20th c. anthro: 

Margaret Mead

• Coming of age in samoa (1928)- Samoas stress-free adolescent transition contrasts with western experiences 

  • Emphasized the cultural relativity of adolescent behaviors and suggested that there is no single, universal path to adulthood 

• Redefined ideas about gender roles by showing that cultural norms, not inherent traits, shape gender and sexuality

  • Discovered significant variations in gender roles and expectations across different cultures 

  • Challenged the idea of fixed, biologically determined gender roles; highlighted the flexibility of gender identities in various societies 

Ruth benedict 

• Not used as much, but very important for establishing cultural anthropology as a systematic way of studying 

• Furthered Boas’ methods and ideas )Her and mead) 

• Introduced “culture and personality” concept (1934 

  • Explored cultures influence on individual psychology 

  • Compared diverse cultures, identified common patterns 

• Helped establish cultural anthro as systematic instead of culture 

Both mead and benedict: 

• Furthered cultural relativism, challenged ethnocentrism in research 

• Paved way for female anthropologists 

• Rumored to be lovers

Zora Neale Hurston

• Ethnographic research: Focus on african american folklore and culture 

• Harlem renaissance 

• Franz Boas Influence: studied under Boas at columbia university 

• Key Works: “Mules and Men”, “Their eyes were watching god” 

• Writing about her own culture (one of the reasons her stuff wasn't a popular) 

• More interested in literature and stuff in earlier life, hence why she didnt finish her studies under Boas. 

• Recognized that folk cultures from descendants of enslaved people was disappearing around her, documented and preserved a lot of that information

• Died in relative anonymity, unmarked grave, but has since gained quite an iconic stature 

• Recognized you didn't have to go out into the other parts of the world but could find things to study in your own backyard 

Clifford Geertz- Interpretive Anthropology (1973)

• Championed “thick description” 

• “The interpretation of Cultures” (1973)- Interpretive anthropology- culture is a text with meaning that can be interpreted- these meaning are shared by people

• “Deep play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight” - Roles of cymbals in social life 

Geertz: Blink vs. Wink- The ‘blinkiness’ of  culture

Defining culture: Blink vs. Wink 

Blinking: 

+ Biological 

+involuntary twitch 

+Not cultural 

Winking: 

• Acquired human behaviour- learned= cultural 

  • =Culture is learned 

• Various meanings of what a wink signifies 

  • = culture is symbolic 

• These meanings are shared among a group of people 

  • =Culture is shared

• These meanings can be studied and interpreted 

Clifford Geertz 

• Influenced the “culture concept”- culture as learned, shared, symbolic; 

• Distinguished between biology and culture 

• Thick description: describing not just the action (a wink can be described as just an eyelid movement= thin description) but what those actions mean to the actors (joking? Flirting? Signal to a friend, the context, etc.) 

• Thick description unravels layers of meaning by looking at both parts of the culture and culture as a whole. 

• Emphasis on local meanings= what “ the natives” think they are up to 

Other important figures of the 20th c. 

• There were many anthropologists,scientists and writers during this time who were influential for anthro. 

  • W.H.R Rivers- The Toda (1906), “Medicine, magic and religion” (1915)- Medicine 

  • Edward Sapir’s Language and culture studies (1920s) - Language 

  • E.E. Evans Pritchard- Witchcraft, oracles, and MAgic among the Azande (1937)- Religion 

  • Radcliffe-Brown- Kinship studies (1950s) 

  • And many others…

• We’ll discuss some of them/ their contributions in future topics 

• Now let's look at some major social theories and movements of the 20th century that shaped anthropology into the 21st century

20th c. anthropological influences: Feminism

• Social and political movement that advocates for the rights and equality of women 

• 20th c.- focused on issues like gender discrimination, women’s suffrage, and challenging tradition; gender roles 

• Feminist and gender studies- issues related to gender roles, power dynamics, and sexuality 

• Feminist anthropology brought attention to gender biases in research and highlighted the roles and contributions of women in different cultures; recently: gender inequality, power, reproduction, gender and sexuality etc. 

20th c. Anthropological influences: Marxism 

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (19th c.) 

• Lens for analyzing society, history, and economics via class struggle (ruling class vs. laborers) and capitalism & how they shape society 

• Marxism advocated overthrowing capitalism & forming a classless society where means of production (factories, land, etc) are collectively owned by people/ state rather than individuals/ corporations 

• In anthropology: examine economic structures. Class dynamics in different societies, impact of capitalism, how power and inequality are embedded in social systems 

Modernity (19th to early 20th c.) 

• Belief in Reason, rationality, progress future-focused, science, objective truth 

• Universal truths & grand narratives 

• Eurocentric perspective: Minimal cultural diversity and subcultures 

• Hierarchical structures in society; linear view of history 

• Emphasized individualism & rejected cultural traditions 

• Stability and predictability: job, relationship for life, nuclear family, minimal family diversity, most ppl work in factories/ industries 

Postmodernity (1960s- ongoing) 

• Questions reason, universal truths and rejects linear history 

• Challenges grand narratives, embraces fluidity, and values hybridity 

• Questions societal impact of progress and traditional power structures 

• Multiple worldviews, no single dominant culture; multiculturalism 

• Rapid change, identities defined by consumption 

• Freedom to shape one’s identity beyond class, gender traditional social norms

20th c. Anthropological influences: Postmodern Philosophy

• Postmodern Approach: questions the idea of a single, objective truth or reality 

• Skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person 

• Postmodernists believe that knowledge and values are influenced by society and are not absolute. They see them as results of political, historical, or cultural discussions and power structures 

• In anthropology- different cultures & individuals may have their own truths & interpretations of reality; there is no one “correct” perspective. 

Reflexivity 

• The practice of acknowledging and critically examining the researchers own position, biases, and influence in the research process 

• Anthropologists started looking inwards and examining how their background, experiences and perspectives may shape their research, interpretation of data, and understanding of the studied culture of community 

• Emphasizes the researcher's subjectivity (perspectives shaped by their own experiences etc.). Positionality (identity, social statuses etc.) power dynamics, ethical considerations etc. 

• Reflexivity is an ongoing, iterative process meaning anthropologists continually reflect on their role and influence throughout the research process

Globalization

• As globalization increased, anthropology increasingly explored the effects of globalization, including the movement of people, goods, ideas, and culture across borders. 

• 21st c.- Anthropologists developed methods such as multi-sited ethnography, which explores the connections and networks that link people and places across the globe. Plus, the use of internet tech for data collection. 

Indigenous Research, decolonization, collaboration 

Indigenous and collaborative research 

• Late 20th c- anthropologists began to engage in more collaborative research with indigenous communities, emphasizing importance of community participation & informed consent; a=indigenous anthropologists 

• Decolonization and Indigenous Rights 

• 21st c.- anthropologists increasingly engage with decolonization efforts and advocate for the rights and autonomy pf indigenous peoples 

Autoethnography, Insider research 

• Insider research: anthropologists conducting research within their own cultural/ social groups = scholarly perspective rooted in personal experience 

• Autoethnography: blends autobiography and ethnography, allowing researchers to explore their personal experiences & reflections for insights into broader cultural contexts 

Visual anthropology

• Focuses on the use of visual media such as photography, film, and video as tools for anthropological research and communication 

• Emphasized the power of visual representation in understanding cultures and conveying anthropological insight 

• Includes: Visual subject: examining visual aspects of cultures 

• Visual data collection methods: photovoice, drawing, bodymaps; photography and filmmaking etc. 

• And visual publication: films, photos, exhibitions etc. 

Digital Anthropology 

(also called cyber, online, virtual, internet anthropology/ ethnography)

• Digital anthropology examines the intersections between technology and human experiences 

• Explores how digital tools, platforms, virtual communities, online communication, digital identities, and technology in general shape everyday life, identities, and social dynamics 

Ethnography and fieldwork today 

• Ethnography may be conducted in urban environments and across multiple global sites 

• Not only in far away or hard-to-reach locations 

• Mixed methods are used more often today 

Lessons learned: Research ethics 

• Informed consent: ensure voluntary and informed participant agreement 

• Cultural Sensitivity: respect cultural norms and valued 

• Address researcher bias 

• Maximize benefits, minimize harm 

• Collaboration: Involve the community and share benefits 

• Long term impact: Consider research consequences 

• Archiving and repatriation: Deal with artifacts and remains ethically 

• Social responsibility: Address societal issues responsibly

• Professional orgs like AAA (american anthropological association) & CASCA (canadian anthropology society) have code of ethics we must follow. + ethical boards, national research ethics policy 

“Do no harm”?- Ethics and Anthropology 

• Anthropologists can still unwittingly or willingly contribute to harmful endeavors 

• Military anthropology: Anthros involved in WW1, WW2, Vietnam war, military propaganda, OSS (pre-CIA) & CIA operations = providing cultural expertise for military purposes 

• Human terrain system (HTS), Minerva Initiative- military/defense programs recruiting social scientists for research on threats to US/ world

• Problems: parameters of research defined by the military (i.e. what/who is deemed a threat? How will research be used, represented etc.)