ANA 2 - Finals

nervous system

Extensive network of specialized cells that serves as the body’s control center and communications network

Central Nervous System

Brain + Spinal cord. It’s the command center that interprets sensory input and decides movement.

Peripheral Nervous System

Sends messages from the brain/spinal cord to muscles (motor output) and gathers sensory input.

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Senses changes in the body and the external environment 

2. Interprets these changes 

3. Initiates action in the form of muscle contractions or gland secretion

Neurons

• Basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that system 

  • Neurogenesis

Glial cells

• Provides support for the neurons to grow 

• Delivers nutrients to the neurons 

• Produce myelin to coat axons

• Cleans up waste products and dead neurons

Neurons

 Basic units of the nervous system. They transmit information.

Motor Neurons

Send signals to muscles (for movement).

Sensory Neurons

Bring info in (touch, pain, temperature).

Interneurons

Connect neurons in the CNS.
- process information between sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive messages.

Axon

Sends messages away to muscles or other neurons.

Neural Impulse

Electric charge that passes from one neuron to the next neuron or muscle fiber; all or none principle

Resting Potential

The separation of charges across the membrane (polarized)

Action Potential

• A rapid and substantial excitation of the neuron’s membrane (depolarized): labo-labo na

Motor Unit

• One motor neuron + all the muscle fibers it controls.

  • The fewer the fibers, the more precise the control
    
    

Electromechanical Delay

• It refers to the time between arrival of a neural stimulus and tension development by the muscle 

• Has been used in the study of reaction time, of physiological properties of muscle (especially in plyometrics, and of population differences

Neural Transmission

• Response to environmental stimuli 

• Reflex, reaction,

Neuromuscular Junction

Where motor neuron meets muscle.

acetylcholine (ACh)

what Neurotransmitter is released to trigger muscle contraction.?

Types of Muscle Fibers

• Type I - Slow Twitch

• Type IIa - Fast Twitch, fatigue-resistant

• Type IIb - Fast Twitch, fatigable

Type I

• for endurance (marathon)

• slow-twitch

Type IIa

• For mid-range activities

• Fast-twitch, fatigue-resistant

Type IIb

• for power or speed (ex: sprinting)

• fast-twitch, fatiguable

Reflexes

Involuntary, fast response (e.g., knee jerk).

Cerebellum

functions:

• motor learning

• sense of body position

• balance and equilibrium

frontal lobe

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• executive functions, thinking, planning, organizing and problem solving, emotions and behavioral control, personality

Motor Cortex

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• movement

Sensory Cortex

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• sensations

Parietal Lobe

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• perception, making sense of the world, arithmetic, spelling

Temporal Lobe

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• memory, understanding, language, hearing

Occipital lobe

Lobes of Cerebrum:

• vision

Biomechanical Behavior of Nerves

• external trauma to the extremities and nerve entrapment may produce mechanical deformation of nerves resulting to deterioration in its function

Common modes of nerve injury

1. stretching

2. compression

stretching (tensile) injuries of nerves

• when tension is applied to a nerve, initial elongation of the nerve happens

• when the limit is approaches, the nerve fibers start to rupture inside

stretching (tensile) injuries of nerves

• there is disintegration of elastic properties and the nerve behaves more like a plastic material

  • max elongation = 20%

  • complete structural failure = 20% to 30%

stretching (tensile) injuries of nerves

• there can be considerable nerve structural damage without visible injury on the surface

• intra-neural tumors (schwannomas) can occur through gradual stretching over a long time

compression injuries of nerves

• symptoms: numbness, pain, muscle weakness

• may be caused by impairment of the blood flow in the compressed part of nerve

male brain

• 10% larger brain

• stronger front-to-back connections

• optimized for motor skills

male brain

brain

• most likely to develop alcohol dependence

• 3 times more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality

• 4 times more likely to have autism

• 2 times more likely to develop parkinsons

female brain

brain

• stronger side-to-side connections

• optimized for intuitive thinking

• more grey matter

Female Brain

brain

• twice as likely to have depression & Alzheimer’s disease

• 4 times more likely to develop multiple sclerosis

• more likely to have stroke

Living Bone

• extremely dynamic tissue that is continually modeled and remodeled by the forces acting on it

living bone

Mechanical functions:

• provides rigid framework (protects and supports other body tissues)

• forms a system of rigid levers that can be moved

Living bone

characteristics

• exhibits stiffness (can withstand stress/ strain)

• compressive strength (resists compression; there is a max load that a material can withstand before permanently deforming or breaking)

calcium phosphate and carbonate

• contributes to the stiffness and compressive strength of bone

• generally constitute approx 60-70% of dry bone weight

collagen

• contributes to flexibility and tensile strength (ability to resist tension)

• progressively lost and bone brittleness increases with age

water and bone porosity

affects bone strength

water

• comprises 20-30% of bone weight

• carries nutrients to and waste products away

• transports mineral ions to and from bone for storage and subsequent use by body tissues

bone porosity

• amount of bone volume filled with pores or cavities

resisting compression

• bone is strongest when?

• compostion and structure of bone

resisting shear

• bone is weakest when?

• composition and structure of bone

cortical bone (compact)

types of bone (based on porosity)

• compact mineralized bone with low porosity

• found in shafts of long bone

trabecular bone (cancellous or spongy)

types of bone (based on porosity)

• less compact with high porosity

• found in the ends of long bones and vertebrae

• has honeycomb structure forming cells with marrow and fat

cortical bone (compact)

types of bone (based on porosity)

• stiffer

• can withstand greater stress

• higher mineral content

trabecular (cancellous or spongy)

types of bone (based on porosity)

• can undergo more strain before fracturing

types of bone (based on location)

1. axial skeleton (skull, ribcage, vertebrae)

2. appendicular (arms, legs, pelvic girdle)

short bones

types of bones (based on shape)

• tarsals

• carpals

long bones

types of bones (based on shape)

• humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpal, metatarsal, phalanges, femur, fibula, tibia

flat bones

types of bones (based on shape)

• sternum, scapulae, ribs, cranial bones

irregular bones

types of bones (based on shape)

• vertebrae

• sacrum

sesamoid bones

types of bones (based on shape)

• patella

epiphyseal plates

• growth centers found near ends of bones where new bone cells are produced

• closes around age 18 (some are present until 25)

epiphyseal lines

• remnants of epiphyseal plates in mature bone

helps bones grow in circumference

• inner layer of periosteum (builds concentric layer of new bone on top of existing ones)

• osteoblasts and osteoclasts

• when bone is broken down, diameter of medullary cavity is enlarged

osteoblasts

• builds new bone tissue

osteoclasts

• breaks down bone tissue

ossification

• natural process of bone formation

1. Intramembranous - bone develops directly

2. endochondral - bone replaces cartilage

   • all bones except skull bones, mandible, and clavicles are formed through endochondral ossification

calcification

• buildup of calcium in body tissues

• can form hardened deposits (in soft tissues, arteries, and other areas)

Wolf’s Law

• according to this law, the densities, sizes, and shapes of bones are determined by the magnitude and direction of the forces acting on it

hypertrophying

• bones response to training

remodeling process of bones

• mechanical loading causes strain on bones due to a predominance of oseoblast or osteoclast activity

connective tissue

Tissues that connect and support other tissues

connective tissue

Functions:

• Mechanical support

• Medium for exchange of nutrients & waste products 

• Energy storage 

• Thermal insulation 

• Defensive functions 

  • Barrier

  • Engulfs bacteria 

  • Contains antibodies

composition of connective tissue

1. Collagen fibers 

• Large fibers of collagen protein 

• Promotes tissue flexibility 

2. Elastic fibers

• Made of elastin protein 

• Allows for stretch and recoil 

3. reticular fibers

• Small and branched fibers

• Forms structural framework of organs (spleen and lymph nodes)

fascia

• Thin membrane of connective tissue that covers structure of the body, protecting them, and binding them into structural unit 

• Fasciitis = inflammation

layers of fascia

1. superficial

2. deep

3. subserous

superficial fasica

fascia

• Lies directly under dermis

• Stores fat and water

• Creates passageway for nerves and vessels

deep fascia

fascia

• Found around muscles and their internal structures

• Aid in muscle movement 

• Provides passageways for nerves and vessels 

• Provides muscle attachment sites

• Cushions muscle layers

subserous fasia

• Separates the deep fascia from the membranes that line the thoracic and abdominal cavities of the body 

• Allows for flexibility and movement 

Bursa

• Small, flattened sacs (contains synovial fluid)

• Found in areas of friction (muscles or tendons 

• Bursitis = enlarged and swollen due to excessive friction

Tendons

• Refers to dense connective tissue that surrounds muscles and connects the muscle to bone 

• Contains abundant collagen fibers for strength and elasticity as they transmit the forces produced by muscles into joint movement

Patellar tendinopathy

• Aka jumpers knee

•  a painful condition of the knee, mainly activity-related, caused by small tears in the patellar tendon that mainly occurs in sports requiring strenuous jumping and results in localized patellar tendon tenderness.

Ligaments

• Fibrous structures made of dense connective tissue that connects bones to each other

• Composed of complex network of collagen fibers (resists stress in multiple directions)

• Prevents movements at joints and contributes to joint stability 

ACL reconstruction

• performed as a minimally invasive arthroscopic procedure

• Knee ligament surgery

Cartilage

• Type of connective tissue that varies in consistency and function by the proportion of proteins distributed through its matrix

• Does not contain blood vessels or nerves (making it have a limited ability to heal injuries)

types of cartilage

1. elastic

2. hyaline

3. fibrous

elastic cartilage

cartilage

• Found in nose and ears 

• Does not have the same direct application to human movement as other types

hyaline cartilage

cartilage

• Smooth and rubbery 

• Helps reduce friction 

• Damage can result in chronic inflammation of the joint (osteoarthritis) 

fibrous cartilage

cartilage

• Has dense network of collagen fibers 

• Makes up part of the disks between vertebrae and meniscus between femur and tibia at the knee

• Cushions the joint surfaces and enhance joint continuity

posture

• Means position 

• Human body can be placed in an infinite number of possible positions (can assume an infinite number of postures)

• When we examine one’s posture, we look at how balanced and efficient it is (good or bad posture)

acture

Balance and efficiency of the body during movement

importance of good posture

• Holding the body statistically in a position places stress on tissues (excessive stress causes tissue injury and damage)

• When posture is analyzed, most often it is standing posture

• Analysis is only valuable if client spends time in that posture 

ideal standing plumb line posture

Standing posture is usually analyzed by comparing symmetry and balance of the body against a perfectly vertical line created by a plumb line

Frontal plane postural examination 

• Ideal = line travels straight down the center of the body, evenly dividing the body into two equal left and right halves

Genu Vagum

• Knees stick together

• Knock knees

Genu Varum

• Knees spread apart

• Bow legs

Sagittal Postural Examination

• Ideal = Line travels straight down through ear, acromion, greater trochanter of femur, knee joint, and lateral malleolus of fibula 

Transverse Plane postural examination

• Postural distortions that exist in transverse plane are rotational distortions (most challenging to see and assess) 

• Vertical plumb line can’t be used 

• Examples of distortion: scoliosis and medially rotated arms at the glenohumeral joints and thighs at hip joints

when analyzing plumb lines, these 2 things hsould be determined

1. What is causing this postural distortion (what activities and habits?)

• Allows for lifestyle advice (to prevent occurence or worsening)

2. What stressful effects will the postural distortion place on the tissues of the body?

• This can help us relate the posture of the client to the symptoms they are experiencing