PEY 332 memory cram

Memory Models Overview

Overview of major theories explaining how memory is structured, stored, and used

Multiple Storage Model of Memory

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model with sensory memory, STM, and LTM

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Researchers who proposed the Multiple Storage Model

Three stages in Multiple Storage Model

Sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information lasting seconds or less

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory lasting milliseconds

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds

Sensory memory function

Holds incoming information long enough for initial processing

Sensory transduction

Sensory info converted into neural signals compatible with the nervous system

Action potentials

Electrical signals used by neurons to transmit information

Sensory cortex

Brain region that receives and processes sensory input (visual, auditory, etc.)

Short-term memory (STM)

Temporary memory storage lasting ~20 seconds to minutes with limited capacity

STM capacity (Miller, 1956)

About 7±2 items

Miller’s “7±2”

The classic estimate of STM capacity

STM fragility

STM contents are easily lost due to distraction or interference

STM operations

STM can manipulate information before transferring it to LTM

Rehearsal

Process of repeating information to keep it active in STM and support LTM transfer

Evidence for memory transfer

Evidence showing STM and LTM operate differently and interact

Serial position effect

Recall varies depending on where an item appears in a list

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)

Study demonstrating the serial position effect

Primacy effect

Better recall for early list items due to rehearsal and LTM transfer

Recency effect

Better recall for late list items because they remain in STM

Primacy mechanism

Early items get more rehearsal → stronger LTM encoding

Recency mechanism

Last items still active in STM at recall

Working Memory Model

Model explaining short-term “thinking space” used for active processing

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Researchers who proposed the Working Memory Model

Working memory

Active system for holding + manipulating information during tasks

Working memory vs STM

Working memory emphasizes processing/manipulation, not just storage

Central executive

Controls attention, coordination, and decision-making in working memory

Central executive role

Allocates resources, manages rehearsal, and supports retrieval from LTM

Phonological loop

Stores and rehearses auditory/verbal information

Phonological loop function

Supports language comprehension and verbal rehearsal

Visuospatial sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial information

Visuospatial sketchpad function

Supports mental imagery, navigation, and spatial reasoning

Episodic buffer

Integrates information across modalities into a coherent episode

Episodic buffer role

Links visual, spatial, and verbal info in chronological sequence

Evidence for visuospatial sketchpad

Mental imagery tasks show visual-spatial processing limits

Shepard & Metzler (1971)

Mental rotation study supporting visuospatial sketchpad

Mental rotation finding

More angular difference → longer confirmation time

Kosslyn et al. (1978)

Mental scanning study supporting visuospatial sketchpad

Mental scanning finding

Greater map distance → longer response time

Evidence for phonological loop

Auditory tasks show decay and interference patterns

Kroll et al. (1970)

Shadowing task showing auditory memory decreases over time

Proactive interference

Old information interferes with learning/recall of new information

Evidence for episodic buffer

Short-term integration can remain even when LTM encoding is impaired

Amnesia and episodic buffer

Some amnesia patients recall stories better than expected (short-term binding intact)

Brain and working memory

Neural systems that support working memory processes

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Key region for central executive control in working memory

PFC and attention

PFC helps maintain goals and manage attention during tasks

PFC input layers

Middle layers receive inputs from many brain regions

PFC output layers

Deep layers send outputs to other regions

Two-way PFC connections

Feedback loops help keep information active over short intervals

Dopamine in working memory

Helps focus attention by suppressing distracting signals

Dopamine filtering

Inhibits noise so strong action potentials dominate processing

Individual differences in working memory

People vary in working memory capacity and distraction control

Working memory span

Measure of how much info someone can hold while processing

Dual-task span tasks

Combine storage + processing to estimate working memory span

Engle (2001)

Research emphasizing individual differences in working memory span

N-back task

Task measuring working memory updating and maintenance

N-back and cognition

N-back performance correlates with cognitive abilities (e.g., comprehension, SAT)

High WM span advantage

Better at filtering distractions and maintaining task goals

Conway et al. (2001)

High WM span participants show better distraction filtering in shadowing tasks

Kane et al. (2001)

Eye movement study showing high WM span participants excel in inhibition tasks

Anti-saccade task

Task requiring suppression of reflexive eye movement toward a stimulus

Anti-saccade finding

High WM span individuals perform better, showing stronger inhibition

Improving working memory

Efforts to increase WM performance through training

Working memory training

Repeated practice on WM tasks to improve performance

Sala & Gobet (2017)

Meta-analysis on working memory training effects

Training benefits evidence

Training can improve task performance, especially in children/adolescents

Transfer of learning

Increased ability in untrained tasks after training

Transfer inconsistency

Evidence is mixed for broad transfer beyond trained tasks

Domain-specific improvement

Training gains often limited to similar tasks, not general cognition

Chess and working memory claim

Bart (2014) argues chess may improve WM and fluid intelligence

Action video games and cognition

Oei & Patterson (2015) argue action games can improve visuo-attention and task performance

Minimal transfer conclusion

Sala & Gobet (2017) found minimal general transfer effects

Elderly cognitive training goal

Aims to slow decline more than to enhance cognition

Karbach & Verhaeghen (2014)

Cognitive training in older adults focuses on maintenance/decline reduction

Melby-Lervåg & Hulme (2016)

Reviews suggesting limited far transfer from cognitive training

Processes in STM and working memory

How information gets stored and brought back for use

Encoding

Process of initially storing information (STM) and later into LTM

Retrieval

Process of accessing LTM and bringing it into STM for current use

Recall

Retrieval requiring conscious reproduction without cues

Recognition

Retrieval requiring identifying previously seen information

Recall vs recognition

Recall is typically harder than recognition

Essay vs multiple-choice

Essays rely more on recall; multiple-choice relies more on recognition

Culture and memory recognition

Cultural processing styles influence what is remembered/recognized