HSP3U EXAM FLASHCARDS

UNIT 1 - RESEARCH METHODS

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3 perspectives of social sciences

anthropology, psychology, and sociology

behaviour

how an individual acts

psychology

study of the mind and behaviour of an individual

sociology

study of human society

bias

existing prejudice that can affect research, even unconsciously

frame of reference

a set of ideas, conditions, experiences, mindset, etc. that affect how one interprets something

5 stages of the social science inquiry model

1. question

2. hypothesis

3. information gathering

4. data analysis

5. conclusion

unstructured observation

observations are made without a predetermined plan

structured observation

observations are taken based on a pre-determined plan

participant observation

used mostly by anthropologists, observing a group by participating

Ethical guidelines for research

- informed consent

- minimal harm

- voluntary participation

- maintaining confidentiality

informed consent

participants must know what is expected of them as well as the risks and benefits of participating in a study

quantitative data

data that looks at quantities, numbers, or frequencies

qualitative data

data that looks at qualities, properties, or characteristics

UNIT 2 - PSYCHOLOGY

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4 perspectives on psychology

Psychodynamic, Behavioural, Humanistic, and Cognitive

nature vs nurture

debate on how much we are shaped by our genetics vs our environment

psychoanalytic theory

Freud theory that all human behaviour is influenced by early childhood, and these experiences influence the unconscious mind

ego

reality (conscious and unconscious)

ID

pleasure seeking instincts (unconscious)

superego

morality (conscious and unconscious)

Defence Mechanisms

unsconcious, psychological strategies that protect against anxiety and unacceptable thoughts/feelings

The 6 defence mechanisms (and brief explanations)

1) Repression: keeping the disturbing thoughts in the unconscious

2) Denial: blocking/refusal to accept

3) Projection: attributing onto another person

4) Displacement: satisfying with a substitute

5) Regression: moving back in psychological time

6) Sublimation: satisfying with a substitute in a socially acceptable way

unconscious (Freud and Jung's views)

Freud: stores all repressed thoughts and feelings

Jung: includes common experiences and instincts

subconscious

the part of our mind that is not currently in focal awareness (ex: breathing)

Behavioural Approach

Focuses on learning and human behaviour, concept that external environment affects behaviour

Classical Conditioning

a once neutral stimulus produces a response when paired with a conditioned stimulus (unconsious)

Notable studies in classical conditioning

Pavlov's Dog: pairing the sound of a bell with food created a drooling response in dogs when they heard the sound

Little Albert: pairing white rats with loud noises created a fear response for the baby when faced with white and fluffy objects

Operant Conditioning

learning through use of rewards and punishment to achieve desired behaviour (conscious)

Notable studies in operant conditioning

The Skinner Box: Rat inside a box equipped with a lever was rewarded with food for the desired behaviour of pushing the lever.

Positive & Negative reinforcement

strengthening the likelihood of a particular response by adding a positive or negative stimulus after the behavior is performed.

Positive Stimulus/Reinforcement: encourages desired behaviour

Negative Stimulus/Reinforcement: discourages behaviour

Attachment theory

a form of behaviourism that suggests that an infant's attachment to a caregiver affects relation behaviours later on

Learning theory

explains how individuals process and explain knowledge during the process of learning

Personality Theory - Jung

- Divided personality into first introversion and extraversion

- Also divides personality into 4 functional types

- Believed that our conscious and unconscious gravitated to opposite types

Jung's 4 functional types

1. Thinking

2. Feeling

(these two are opposites)

3. Sensation

4. Intuition

(these two are opposites)

Ancient Greek personality types (there are 4)

based on bodily fluids, called humours.

Yellow Bile = irritable

Black Bile = melancholic

Blood = optimistic

Phlegm = calm

Psychodynamic Approach

builds onto Freud's psychoanalytic theory, an approach to therapy using the idea that focuses on resolving conscious and unconscious feelings

Cognitive Approach

the study of internal mental processes (ex: memory, attention, perception, etc)

Bystander Effect

the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening or helping someone in need

Sigmund Freud

- Developped the psychoanalytic therapy of free association; the practice of allowing the patient to discuss thoughts, dreams, memories, or words, regardless of coherency, to lead to the unconscious mind

- psyche: ego, superego, id

- defence mechanisms

- freudian slips

Karen Horney

- emphasized importance of social and cultural factors

- challenged many masculine idealogies at the time

- contributed to the study of neurotic disorder

Jane Goodall

primatologist who studied chimpanzees, she discovered that they make and use tools

previously, it was believed to be a human-only ability

Carl Jung

- first to identify extraversion and introversion as personality traits

- balancing a person's psyche allows them to reach their full potential

- collective unconscious: shared memories of our ancestors

➥ archetypes: universal symbols that reappear over time (ex: mother=nurturing)

- four functional types; unconscious and conscious gravitate twoards opposite ends

Ivan Pavlov

- discovered classical conditioning

- Pavlov's Dog experiment

Harry Harlow

- monkey experiment, the attachment theory

- disproved the common theory that love was based on physical needs, since the baby monkeys always preferred the cloth "mother"

Abraham Maslow

- created the Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: to reach their full potential, people's basic physical needs must be met

- father of humanistic psychology

B.F. Skinner

- discovered operant conditioning

- Skinner Box rat experiment

Carl Rogers

- one of the founders of humanistic psychology

- developed the client-centered approach to psychotherapy

Albert Bandura

Bobo Doll Experiment: children imitated aggresssion

Philip Zimbardo

Stanford Prison Experiment: participants' behaviour was caused by the simulated-prison situation, rather than individual personality traits

Jane Elliot

Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes experiment: demonstrated the power of discrimination to school children by dividing them by eye-colour (as opposed to race)

Clive Wearing

- one of the most severe cases of amnesia ever recorded, unable to form new memories due to an illness that destroyed his hippocampus

- the man with a 7-second memory

Jean Piaget

- the IQ test

- stages cognitive development in children

UNIT 3 - ANTHROPOLOGY

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What is anthropology in its most basic sense?

the study of human societies and cultures and their development

Paleoanthropology

Study of human ancestors based on evidence from the distant past

Primatology

the study of primates from our distant evolutionary past, similarities and differences with humans

Examples of characteristics humans share with with primates

- grasping hands

- forward facing eyes

- large brains

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- strong mother-infant bond

- long infant dependency periods

- dominance hierarchies and aggression among the males

- grooming

- communication (ex: facial expressions, touch, vocalizations, and body language)

Human Variation

Genetic differences between people and populations, anthropologists try to understand these differences from an evolutionary perspective

Cultural Anthropology

the study of the origins, development, and functioning of human cultures

Physical Anthropology

studies human (and primates') evolution and biology

What is culture made up of?

what people do, make, believe, their behaviour and way of life

Linguistics

the study of structure of language and the connections among the brain and how they're linked to culture

Race in anthropology

Now considered unfounded. Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation.

Darwin's 3 natural selection principals

1. Variation (essential for the survival of the species)

2. Heritability

3. Environmental fitness

Survival of the Fittest

Darwin's term that organisms best adjusted to their environment are the most successful in surviving and reproducing

Cultural Relativism

idea that an anthropologist cannot compare two cultures because each culture has its own internal rules that must be accepted

Franz Boas

introduced the idea of Cultural Relativism in the 1900s

Functional Theory (two points)

The idea that every belief, action, or relationship in a culture functions to meet the needs of individuals, ensuring survival of the culture.

Things that may appear to have little meaning will have very real economic social and political functions

Cultural Materialism (two points)

Pionnered by Marvin Harris, states that materials or conditions within the environment (ex: climate, food supply) influence how a culture develops, creating the ideas and ideology of a culture.

If something (ex: a law) is not of value to a society, it will eventually disappear. (like evolution!)

Postmodernism

The belief that there is no objective truth, since anthropologists cannot study their subjects in a detached way, since you cannot study other cultures without your own biases influencing. Everything can be argued!

➥ often conduct research in their own cultural settings

Rite of Passage + give an example

a ceremony, ritual, or event that marks a change in life or status

ex: in Canada, this could be moving out, having children, getting your driver's license, drinking alcohol, and so on

3 Stages of rites of passage

1. Segregation: an individual is separated from the rest of society and from their original status

2. Transition: the state of transition between the old and the new. The individual is becoming their new self, and learning the new role.

3. Incorporation/Reintegration: the individual is then reintegrated into society in their new role, now expected to do new tasks and has their new status formally recognized by society.

Feminist Anthropology (two points)

Began in the 1970s, examined anthropology to ensure that female voices were heard and included in research.

Also focuses on how societies are structured in relation to gender and gender roles.

What did Ernestine Friedl conclude about forager societies?

the amount of freedom women had was strongly tied to their contributions to the the food supply

(in societies where men have more control of the food, men are more dominant and in control)

What was Maine Margolis' view on women's roles in postwar America?

argued that material activities drove the ideological changes of the feminist movement, not the other way around

(even though the norm was for women to stay home, material changes sent women into the workforce)

What's the connection between physical environment and culture?

physical environment shapes culture and the way we behave. Humans adapt to the environment and culture reflects that adaptation.

What's the connection between Technology and Culture?

Humans have been using technology to adapt to their environments, and when a society develops new technology, then ideas, language, social structures, and ultimately culture, can change.

Technological Diffusion

the adoption by one culture of a technology invented by another

explain the example of front porches (technology and culture)

Before AC, the front porch was originally the cooler place and a social place where neighbours would talk to each other. With the introduction of AC and therefore less porch activity, North Americans have become more isolated from their neighbours.

What's the connection between language and culture?

Even for speakers of the same language, the same words may hold different meanings

explain what euphemisms can tell an anthropologist + provide an example

Euphemisms are words or sets of words used to describe an uncomfortable or inappropriate concept in a polite or socially acceptable fashion. The use of euphemisms can reveal what things are rude or taboo to discuss in certain situations.

ex: In Canada we say we are going to the bathroom/restroom

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The idea that language not only labels reality, but also shapes our cultural reality. If there is a word for a concept in one language that does not exist in another, then those people will be more likely to think of the concept more often.

provide an example of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The english language uses a lot of words for time, so its speakers are more concerned about it. The Hopi language does not, so its speakers are less concerned.

What's the connection between culture and economy?

All human societies depend on economic systems to produce resources needed/distribute them.

➥ All humans have technology to assist them in this (ex: stone tools, computers, oil wells, etc)

➥ All societies divide the labour some along gender or kin lines other in more complex ways

explain the importance of marriage in anthropology

Almost all cultures have the cultural institution of marriage, although they differ greatly from one culture to the next

Anthropologists agree that marriage:

- Defines social relationships to provide for the survival and socialization of children

- Defines the rights and obligations of two people to each other

- Creates new relationships between families

how did canadian identity develop? (three stages)

1. Early "canadian culture" was shaped by the founding nations of the country, France and England (shaped our laws, economy, and art)

2. Canada eventually became more independent from Britain, and the US increased its influence

3. In recent years, it has become extremely multicultural

what are some aspects of canadian identity we discussed in class?

Hockey, Snow, Maple syrup, Tim hortons, Margaret Atwood, Group of Seven, etc...

explain the connection between legal systems and culture

All societies need a way to create social control and deal with aggression/violence, either through social pressure or complex legal systems

Informal vs Formal Justice Systems

Everyone in a society knows each other → social pressure and avoidance is often successful in dealing with aggression and violence

• used by many nomadic and semi-nomadic societies

VS

Societies increase in size and complexity → social pressure isn't enough, collective action is needed → develops more complex justice systems. (laws, courts, specialized occupations, and formal punishments)

• more common in hierarchical societies with social class and centralized power

Restorative Justice System (two points)

An approach to justice that focuses on restoring harmony and balance to the community by focusing on the needs of both the victims and the offender instead of punishment.

The offender publicly acknowledges the wrongs committed and repairs the harm they caused before they can be reintegrated into the community.

Material Culture

the physical aspects of a society, the objects made or modified by humans

Steno's Principles of Stratigraphy + brief descriptions of each (four principles)

Law of superposition: on top is youngest, on bottom is oldest

Cross-cutting relationship: if something is containedin or cuts through other layers, it's younger than them

Law of lateral continuity: even though there is a disturbance, since the layers are lain laterally, the order should remain continuous

Original Horizontality: layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity

Augustus Rivers (what he's known for, what his most important contribution was)

best known for conducting archeological excavations in England during the 1800s, he systematically catalogued the artifacts he found by type and by chronological order.

His most important contribution was his idea that all artifacts had value.

Harris Matrix

diagram that shows the sequence of archaeological contexts and depositions on a site

Relative dating methods

relies on relationships in ages (stratigraphy)

Absolute dating methods

relies on regular time dependant processes

how did William Petrie contribute to relative dating

In the 1880s, he pioneered use of pottery fragments as a way to date layers

give examples of things an archaeologist can learn from the findings from Mycenaean graves?

- weapons, armour: the metals used

- masks, cups, jewelry: signs of wealth and importance

➥ strong emphasis on demonstrating wealth

- religion and thoughts about afterlfie

- materials used: access to resources, and trade routes/interaction and contact with other societies

- age of materials used: timeline

- changes or continuity in pottery, burial methods, etc: how cultures have developped over time