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Personality
an individual's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting
Psychodynamic theories view of personality
view human behavior as a dynamic interaction between the conscious mind and the unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts.
Unconscious
a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories
Ego
The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality
Defense mechanisms
are unconscious strategies that people use to protect themselves from anxiety or threats to their self-esteem
Repression
banishing anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Example: Witness a murder and when the police ask you what happened, you forget
Regression
an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated. Example: Anxious on a first day of school, a child may result to a "thumb sucking" phase to help him/her get through
Reaction Formation
the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses to their opposite. People may express feelings that are opposite of their unconscious feelings. Example: "I hate him" may really mean, "I love him"
Projection
People disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. Example: "He doesn't trust me," may mean "I don't trust him."
Rationalization
offers self-justification explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. Example: Students who don't study may think, "All work and no play makes me a boring person" or someone who is an alcoholic say, "I only drink in social settings."
Displacement
Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person; redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. Example: Bullying
Denial
People refuse to believe or even perceive painful realities. Example: See your boyfriend cheating, but still don't believe it
Sublimation
is a type of defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior
Projective Test
Personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli and test-takers tell a story about it
Preconscious
Includes stored information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently aware or thinking of but can easily call to mind when asked
Humanistic Psychology
emphasized human potential, focused on the ways "healthy" people strive for self determination and self-realization
Unconditional Positive Regard
We are all born with a need for acceptance and love from others independent of how we behave, and positive self-regard from ourselves
Self-Actualization
motivation to fulfill potential and to become a fully functioning person
Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality
states that our traits and social environments interact with one another, and those traits are learned through observation or imitation.
Reciprocal determinism
is a social-cognitive theory that states that a person's behavior, environment, and cognition all influence and interact with each other
Self-Concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves "Who and I"
Self-esteem
a person's subjective evaluation of their own worth, including their beliefs about themselves and their emotional states.
Self Efficacy
The belief that you can do a particular task greatly increases the chances that you actually can do it
Trait
A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
Personality Inventory
A questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
Factor analysis
A statistical method used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of fewer unobserved variables called factors. It helps identify clusters or groups of related items on psychological tests.
The Big Five Personality Factors
Model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions (OCEAN)
Openness
Do you like change? Can you adapt to it? - Low score: practical, prefers routine, comforting- High score: imaginative, prefers variety, independent
Consciousness
Are you organized and careful? - Low score: disorganized, careless, impulsive- High score: organized, careful, disciplined
Agreeableness
How well do you get along with others? - Low score: ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative- High score: soft-hearted, trusting, helpful
Extroversion
Are you shy or outgoing? - Low score: retiring, sober, reserved- High score: sociable, affectionate, fun-loving
Neuroticism
Are you anxious often? - Low score: calm, secure, self-satisfied- High score: anxious, insecure, self-pitying
Drive Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Arousal Theory
Human motivation aims to increase arousal - We feel driven to experience stimulation
Optimal Level of Arousal
Individuals are motivated to reach an optimal level of arousal, where they feel alert and engaged but not stressed
Yerkes-Dodson Law
People perform best at a moderate level of arousal.
Self-Determination Theory
The theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation that stems from internal factors, benefits associated with the process of pursuing a goal (autonomy, mastery, purpose)
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation that stems from external factors, benefits associated with achieving a goal or avoiding punishment (compensation, punishment, reward)
Instinct
Complex, inherited behavior patterns characteristic of a species that is unlearned.
Instinct Theory
People are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily/genetically programmed to do so with survival instincts
Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory
A theory that categorizes social conflicts into different types.
Approach-approach
The least stressful social conflict that involves 2 options, only one of which you can choose. Ex. You are accepted to both Harvard and Dartmouth. Which do you choose?
Avoidance-avoidance
Involves 2 negative options, one of which you must choose. Ex. mow the lawn or wash the dishes.
Approach-avoidance
Involves whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences. You are both attracted and repelled by the same goal. Ex. you like to eat spicy food but it gives you heartburn.
Multiple approach-avoidance
Most complex of the social conflicts that involves several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects. Ex. you only have a certain amount of money to spend on prom.
Sensation-seeking theory
Proposes that one's level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation.
Hunger Motivation
Understanding why we eat; hunger is something that makes us do things (motivator) and is a drive state.
Hunger triggers
Generally triggered by low glucose levels in the blood; behaviors resulting from hunger aim to restore homeostasis regarding those glucose levels.
Leptin
Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.
Ghrelin
Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends 'I'm hungry' signals to the brain.
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
The 'on' button for eating; if it is lesioned, people will not feel hungry and they will become little (LH).
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
The 'off' button for eating; if it is lesioned, people will not feel full and they will become very huge (VMH).
Emotion
Response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Facial movement and expressions can influence attitude and emotional experience.
Broaden-and-Build Theory
A model in positive psychology that suggests that positive emotions can help people build useful skills and psychological resources over time.
Universal Emotions theory
A concept in psychology that suggests there are six basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust) that are universally expressed and recognized across different cultures.
Display Rule
A social group or culture's informal norms about how to appropriately express emotions.
Individualist cultures
Often express their emotions more, in speech & body; however, all cultures exhibit the worldwide smiles, frowns, & angry faces of humanity.
