Key History Terms from Ancient Greece to Reconquista

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, people, and concepts from Ancient Greece through the Reconquista. Each term is paired with a concise definition.

Athens and Sparta

Two powerful Greek city-states: Athens was a democracy famous for culture; Sparta was an oligarchic, militaristic society.

Socrates

Athenian philosopher known for the Socratic method of questioning and foundational to Western philosophy.

Plato

Socrates’ student; founded the Academy in Athens and wrote The Republic on philosophy and politics.

Aristotle

Plato’s student; a polymath who contributed to logic, biology, physics, ethics, and politics; tutor of Alexander the Great.

Herodotus

'Father of History'; Greek historian who wrote The Histories about the Greco-Persian Wars.

Classical Virtues

Four cardinal Greek virtues: prudence (wisdom), justice, fortitude (courage), temperance (moderation).

Ptolemy

Greco-Roman astronomer and geographer from Alexandria; proposed the geocentric model of the universe.

Orbis Terrarum

Latin for 'circle of the lands' or 'world'; Romans’ term for the known world.

Pax Romana

Long period of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire (27 BCE–180 CE).

Natural Laws

Universal moral laws inferred from nature, applied in Roman legal theory and philosophy.

Paul

St. Paul the Apostle; spread Christianity and authored many New Testament letters.

Constantine

Roman emperor who legalized Christianity (Edict of Milan, 313 CE) and founded Constantinople.

St. Augustine

Early Christian theologian; author of Confessions and City of God; foundational to Western Christianity.

Caesaropapism

Idea that the head of state also rules the church (notably in the Byzantine Empire).

Constantinople

Capital of the Byzantine Empire; founded by Constantine on the site of Byzantium.

Barbarians

Term used by Greeks/Romans for outsiders; later referred to Germanic tribes invading Roman territory.

Islam

Monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad in the 7th century CE; rapidly expanded.

St. Benedict

Founder of Western monasticism; created the Benedictine Rule for monks.

Donation of Constantine

A forged decree claiming papal authority over Rome and the western empire.

Petrine Supremacy

Doctrine claiming the Pope’s primacy as successor of St. Peter.

Aix-la-Chapelle

Modern-day Aachen, Germany; residence and palace site of Charlemagne.

Magyars

East-Central Asian-origin horsemen who settled in Hungary in the 9th century and raided Europe.

Great Schism (East–West)

1054 CE division between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Secular

Non-religious or worldly matters, as opposed to church-related concerns.

High Middle Ages

Period roughly 1000–1300 CE marked by growth of towns, agriculture, and universities.

Three-Field System

Agricultural rotation across three fields, with one left fallow to renew soil.

Vassal

Person who holds land from a lord in exchange for homage, fealty, and military service.

Manor

Feudal estate consisting of the lord’s lands and serfs working them.

Serf

Peasant bound to the land and under the authority of the manor lord.

Hugh Capet

First king of the Capetian dynasty (began in 987 CE), establishing long dynastic rule in France.

1066

Norman Conquest: William of Normandy defeated England at Hastings and became king.

Imperial Free Cities

Cities within the Holy Roman Empire that paid direct allegiance to the Emperor.

Hanseatic League

A powerful commercial confederation of northern European towns and merchants.

Tariffs

Taxes on imported or exported goods.

Guilds

Associations of artisans/merchants that regulated crafts, quality, and training.

Law Merchant

Medieval body of commercial law governing trade practices.

Magna Carta (1215)

Charter limiting royal power and safeguarding certain rights of subjects.

Parliament

English legislative body that evolved from the King's Council in the 13th century.

House of Commons

Lower house of Parliament representing common people.

Holy Roman Empire

Multi-ethnic Central European empire (roughly 9th–1806 CE) centered in Germany.

Gregory VII

Pope (1073–1085) who reformed the church and clashed with Henry IV over investiture.

Henry IV

Holy Roman Emperor excommunicated by Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy.

Excommunication

Official exclusion from the sacraments and Christian community.

Sacraments

Sacred rites of the Christian Church (e.g., baptism, Eucharist).

To go to Canossa

Humiliating act of penance; Henry IV’s walk to Canossa to seek forgiveness.

Innocent III

Pope (1198–1216) who asserted papal authority over secular rulers.

Heresy

Belief or opinion contrary to orthodox Church doctrine.

Fourth Lateran Council

1215 CE ecumenical council addressing heresy and defining Church doctrine (transubstantiation).

Dogma

Principles laid down by authority and regarded as incontrovertibly true.

Transubstantiation

Catholic doctrine that bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ.

Peter Abelard

Medieval scholastic philosopher; known for his work and Héloïse affair.

Anselm

Father of scholasticism; famous for the ontological argument for God’s existence.

Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas; Summa Theologica; reconciled faith with reason and Aristotelian philosophy.

Urban II

Pope who initiated the First Crusade in 1095 CE.

Reconquista

Eight-century-plus Christian effort to reclaim Iberia from Muslim rule.