AP Psychology Unit 0 - Science Practices Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering AP Psychology Unit 0 - Science Practices.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek or interpret information in ways that support what you already believe.

Hindsight Bias

After an event happens, believing you 'knew it all along.'

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of your knowledge or judgments.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable a researcher manipulates.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable a researcher measures to see the effect of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Using chance to place participants into experimental groups; helps make the groups similar.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one person, group, or situation.

Correlation

A measure of how strongly two variables are related.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method that combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without manipulating the situation.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about what will happen.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that could be shown to be wrong by evidence.

Operational Definition

A precise explanation of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study.

Confounding Variable

An outside variable that changes along with the independent variable and could affect the dependent variable.

Third-Variable Problem

The possibility that a separate variable explains a correlation between two variables.

Histogram

A graph that shows the frequency of numerical data; the bars usually touch.

Scatterplot

A graph of paired data points used to show the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ showing the direction and strength of a correlation; values closer to $\pm 1$ are stronger.

Central Tendency

Ways of describing the center of a data set: mean, median, and mode.

Variation

How spread out the scores in a data set are.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Range

The highest score minus the lowest score.

Standard Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution in which about $68\%$ of scores fall within $1$ standard deviation, $95\%$ within $2$, and $99.7\%$ within $3$.

Skewness

When a distribution is uneven, with a longer tail on one side.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two clear peaks or modes.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Median

The middle score when the scores are placed in order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores typically vary around the mean.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for unusually extreme scores to be closer to the average when measured again.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to understand or draw conclusions about.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects important characteristics of the population.

Random Sample

A sample chosen so members of the population have an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants because they are easy to access.

Sampling Bias

When the method of selecting participants produces a sample that does not represent the population.

Generalization

Applying findings from a sample to the larger population.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

The comparison group that does not receive the treatment or receives a placebo.

Placebo

An inactive treatment designed to resemble the real treatment.

Single-Blind Study

A study in which participants do not know which condition they are in.

Double-Blind Study

A study in which neither participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is in each condition.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations unintentionally influence participants, procedures, or interpretation of results.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to answer in ways that make yourself look more socially acceptable.

Qualitative Research

Research that collects descriptive, nonnumerical information.

Structured Interview

An interview in which each participant is asked the same predetermined questions.

Quantitative Research

Research that collects numerical or measurable data.

Likert Scale

A rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, such as $1$ to $5$ or strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Peer Review

Evaluation of research by other experts before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to see whether similar results occur again.

Statistical Significance

A result that is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, often using a cutoff such as $p < 0.05$.

Sample Size and Statistical Significance

Larger samples generally reduce random error and make real effects easier to detect.

Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

A relationship between two variables does not prove that one variable caused the other.

Self-Report Bias

Inaccuracies that occur when people report information about themselves incorrectly or incompletely.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research involving humans to protect participants' rights and welfare.

Animal Research Ethical Standards

Rules requiring humane treatment of animals and minimizing unnecessary pain or distress.

Informed Consent

Participants receive relevant information about a study and voluntarily agree to participate.

Protection From Harm

Researchers must minimize physical and psychological risks to participants.

Confidentiality

Participants' identities and personal information are protected.

Deception

Withholding or misleading information when scientifically necessary and ethically justified.

Confederate

A person working with the researcher who secretly acts like a participant.

Debriefing

Explaining the study's true purpose and any deception after participation.