General knowledge

what are the types of offender profiling

the top-down approach, the bottom-up approach

what is offender profiling

an investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes to narrow the list of likely suspects

what does the compiling of a profile usually involve

careful scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis of evidence and witness reports

what is the purpose of careful scrutiny of a crime scene in offender profiling

to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of the offender

what is the American approach to offender profiling

top-down approach

what is the top-down approach

conceptual categories of organised and disorganised offenders are pre-existing, evidence from the crime scene and other details such as the crime/victim are used to fit into the pre-existing category and determine which type the offender is

how did the top-down approach of offender profiling come about

originated in the US by the FBI in the 1970s, data gathered from in-depth interviews of 36 sexually-motivated murderers helped form organised and disorganised crime categories

what are the types of offender in the top-down approach

organised and disorganised

what are the characteristics of an organised offender

planned the crime, victim is targeted- killer has a ‘type’, unknown to victim high degree of control over crime, little evidence or clues left, above average IQ, in a skilled, professional occupation, socially and sexually competent, married with a family, angry/depressed

what are the characteristics of a disorganised offender

little planning, low control over victim, lots of evidence left, can be familiar to victim, lower than average IQ, unskilled work/unemployed, socially and sexually dysfunctional, live alone, anxious/psychotic

what are the stages of conducting an FBI profile

• data assimilation- profiler reviews evidence

• crime scene classification- organised/disorganised

• crime reconstruction- hypotheses of sequence of events/behaviour of victim

• profile generation- hypotheses of likely offender

what is the bottom-up approach for offender profiling

data-driven approach that involves using data from a crime scene and victim to build a statistical data base, statistical information is analysed to find relationships between crimes, doesn’t begin with fixed typologies but the profile emerges as the investigator engages in deeper more rigorous scrutiny

where does the bottom-up approach originate from

Britain

what are the aspects of the bottom-up approach

investigative psychology, geographical profiling

what are the parts of investigative psychology in the bottom-up approach

interpersonal coherence, significance of time and place, forensic awareness

what is investigative psychology in the bottom-up approach

an attempt to apply statistical procedures with psychological theory to analyse crime scene evidence, aim is to establish patterns of behaviour likely to occur across crime scenes, to develop a statistical database that acts as a baseline for comparison, specific details of an offence can be matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender, their family/background etc., can determine if a series of offences are linked

what is interpersonal coherence in investigative psychology

the way an offender behaves at the scene- how they interact with the victim etc.- may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations, e.g. some rapists want to maintain maximum control and humiliate victims and others are apologetic, may tell police how the offender relates to women generally

what is significance of time and place in investigative psychology

may indicate base or mode of transport

what is forensic awareness in investigative psychology

individuals who have neem subject of police interrogation before may behave more mindfully of covering their tracks

what is geographic profiling in the bottom-up approach

uses information about the location of linked crimes to make inferences about likely home or base of an offender, their job or habits,

what are the key principles of geographic profiling in the bottom-up approach

least-effort, distance decay, centre of gravity

how can an offender be described in terms of geographic profiling in the bottom-up approach

marauder or commuter

what is a marauder

an offender who operates in close proximity to their home base

what is a commuter

an offender who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence

how can spatial decision-making help in offender profiling

offers the investigative team important insight into the nature of the offence e.g. planned or opportunistic, revealing factors about the offender e.g. mental maps, mode of transport, approximate age

what is Canter’s circle theory in geographic profiling in the bottom-up approach

serial offenders will restrict their work to geographical area they are familiar with, patterns of offending forma a circle around the offenders home base, distribution leads to describe an offender as either marauder or commuter

what are the biological explanations

atavistic form, genetic explanations, neural explanations

who came up with the atavistic form explanation and when

Lombroso in 1876

what was Lombroso’s atavistic form theory

• criminals were ‘genetic throwbacks’ - a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals

• offenders were lacking evolutionary development

• their savage nature meant they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society and so turn to crime

• saw offending behaviour as a natural tendency rooted in genes of those who engage in it

• offending behaviour was innate and the offender was not to blame

• physiological markers could be used to identify an offender

what are the types of physiological markers Lombroso stated in his atavistic form explanation

cranial characteristics, facial characteristics and other physical markers

what are cranial characteristics of atavistic form

narrow sloping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry

what are physical traits of atavistic form

dark skin, extra toes, nipples of fingers

what are some personality aspects of offenders according to atavistic form

insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment

what were the types of offences Lombroso categorised as having specific characteristics

murderers, sexual deviants, fraudsters

what are the characteristics of murders according to atavistic form

bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears

what are the characteristics of sexual deviants according to atavistic form

glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips, projecting ears

what are the characteristics of fraudsters according to atavistic form

thin and reedy lips

what was Lombroso’s research

examined facial and cranial features of Italian convicts, 383 dead, 3839 living, concluded there was an atavistic form, these features were indicators of criminality, concluded 40% of criminal acts are committed by people with atavistic characteristics

what is the genetic explanation for offending

offenders inherit a gene or combination of genes that predispose them to commit crime, faulty MAOA gene leads to higher than usual levels of serotonin, illustrated by twin and adoption studies, diathesis-stress model is used to show the environment has some effect

who did a twin study to illustrate the importance of genes on offending

Christiansen

what was Christiansen’s study to show the importance of genes on offending

twin study, studied over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark, found concordance rates for offender behaviour of 35% for MZ males and 13% for DZ males, this indicates it is not just the behaviour that might be inherited but the underlying predisposing traits

what is the main candidate gene linked to offenders

MAOA

what is the role of the MAOA gene

regulates serotonin in the brain, has been linked to aggressive behaviour

what is the diathesis-stress model in the genetic explanation

if genetics have some influence it seems likely that this is at least partly moderated by the effects of the environment, a tendency towards offending behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger e.g. being raised in a dysfunctional environment

what is the neural explanation for offending

• irregularities in levels of neurotransmitters has been linked to offending e.g. high levels of noradrenaline linked with aggression, low levels of serotonin leads to greater impulsivity 

• shortened version of MAOA gene may alter levels of dopamine and serotonin 

• antisocial personality disorder (APD) is associated with reduced emotional responses and a lack of empathy- a conditioned linked with many offenders

• reduced activity in prefrontal cortex which controls emotional behaviour in those with APD (Raine)

• reduction in volume of grey matter in prefrontal cortex in those with APD (Raine)

• lowered EEG arousal at 15 linked to later criminal activity

• mirror neurons- offenders can feel empathy when asked to empathise

what are mirror neurons in the neural explanation

Keysers found offenders with APD can empathise but only when asked to empathise, suggests APD individuals are not totally without empathy but may have a neural switch that can be switched on and off unlike the normal brain which has the empathy switch permanently on

what did Raine find out in the neural explanation

conducted studies of APD brains, reported they have reduced activity in prefrontal cortex- part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour, 11% reduction in volume of grey matter in prefrontal cortex compared to controls

what is the condition many offenders have according to the neural explanation

antisocial personality disorder (APD)- reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy for the feelings of others

what are the psychological theories for offending

• Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality

• cognitive

• differential association theory

• psychodynamic

what was Eysenck’s theory

behaviour could be represented along two dimensions: introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability, the two dimensions combine to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits, later he added a third- psychoticism-sociability

what forms our personality according to Eysenck

biological origin- personality is innate, come from type of nervous system we inherit, therefore all personality types including criminal personality types have an innate, biological basis

what are the features of extraverts

have an under-aroused nervous system meaning they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours, tend not to condition easily, don’t learn from mistakes

what are the features of neurotic individuals

high levels of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight), tend to be nervous, jumpy and overanxious, general instability means their behaviour is difficult to predict

what are the features of psychotic individuals

have higher levels of testosterone and are unemotional, prone to aggression, cold and uncaring

what is the criminal personality according to Eysenck

neurotic, extravert and psychotic individual- neurotics are unstable and prone to overreact to situations of threat, extraverts seek more arousal and so engage in dangerous activities, psychotics are aggressive and lack empathy

what is the role of socialisation in Eysenck’s theory

Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature- selfish and concerned with immediate gratification, offenders are impatient, the process of socialisation is where children are taught to become able to delay gratification and be more socially orientated, people with high extravert and neuroticism scores have nervous systems that make them difficult to condition, less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses, more likely to act antisocially 

what are the cognitive explanations of schizophrenia

level of moral reasoning, cognitive distortions

who proposed the concept of moral reasoning causing offending behaviour

Kohlberg

what was Kohlberg’s theory

level of moral reasoning- people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right or wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning

what did Kohlberg base his theory of moral reasoning on

people’s response to a series of moral dilemmas such as the Heinz dilemma

what is the Heinz dilemma

used by Kohlberg to support his theory of moral reasoning for offending, a moral dilemma about whether a sick woman’s husband should/has the right to steal the drugs that will save the woman from a druggist who is refusing to sell them for cheaper, the druggist is charging lots more than he paid for it, and the husband can’t afford the new price, does the druggist have the right to charge that much if he found it?

what was Kohlberg’s research

found a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths even after controlling social background

what are Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning levels

level 1: pre-conventional morality

level 2: conventional morality

level 3: post-conventional morality

what are the stages in level 1 pre-conventional morality for Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning theory

stage 1: punishment orientation- rules are obeyed to avoid punishment

stage 2: instrumental orientation or personal gain- rules are obeyed for personal gain

what are the stages in level 2 conventional morality for Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning theory

stage 3: ‘good boy’ or ‘good girl’ orientation- rules are obeyed for approval

stage 4: maintenance of the social order- rules are obeyed to maintain social order

what are the stages in level 3 post-conventional morality for Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning theory

stage 5: morality of contract and individual rights- rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others

stage 6: morality of conscience- individuals have a personal set of ethical principles

where are offenders most likely in Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning

pre-conventional level (stage 1 or 2)

why are offenders most likely in the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning

pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, associated with less mature, childlike reasoning, adults who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards e.g. money, increased respect, assumption is supported by studies that suggest offenders are often more egocentric and display poorer social-perspective taking skills than non-offenders,

why are people at higher levels of Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning less likely to offend

tend to sympathise more with the rights of others, exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence

what are cognitive distortions

errors or biases in people’s information processing system characterised by faulty thinking, dysfunctional thinking about their offence to legitimise behaviour and maintain a positive view of self

what are the examples of cognitive distortions

hostile attribution bias, minimalisation

what is hostile attribution bias

cognitive distortion: misinterpretation of other people’s actions/words/expressions as aggressive, this may trigger a disproportionate and often violent response, justify their actions to themselves by attributing cause to the victim

who did a study on hostile attribution bias

Schonenberg and Jusyte- 55 violent offenders

what was Schonenberg and Jusyte’s study on hostile attribution bias (method and results)

55 violent offenders presented with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions, when compared with non-aggressive matched control group the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile

where does hostile attribution bias appear to come from

childhood

who did a study to see where hostile attribution bias came from

Dodge and Frame

what did Dodge and Frame do as a study on hostile attribution bias (method and results)

showed children a video clip of an ‘ambiguous provocation’, children who had been identified as aggressive prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as non-aggressive, showed hostile attribution bias behaviour rooted from childhood

what is minimalisation

cognitive distortion, denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence, explaining the consequences as less damaging or significant than they are, justifying it to themself to reduce guilt

what kind of people are prone to minimalisation

individuals who commit sexual offences

who did a study on minimalisation

Barbaree

what was Barbaree’s study on minimalisation

among 26 rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all, 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

who proposed differential association theory

Sutherland

what is differential association theory

offending is learnt through socialisation, pro-criminal attitudes and behaviour occur through association and relationships with people of value, from these people we learn norms and values even deviant ones, offending behaviour are passed on through generations/peers, everyone’s associations are different (differential association), attitudes of those around us reinforce our behaviour through approval/acceptance, reinforcement affects offending behaviour- if rewards for offending are greater than for not

according to differential association theory what factors does offending arise from

learned attitudes towards offending, learning of specific offending acts/techniques

what is the learning attitudes factor in differential association theory

when a person is socialised into a group they are exposed to attitudes towards the law

what did Sutherland argue about learning attitudes and how they affect a person

if the number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend

what is the learning process in differential association theory

the same process as learning anything else e.g. conforming to the law

what is the learning techniques factor of differential association theory

learning particular techniques for committing offences e.g. how to break through a locked window

why did Sutherland believe so many convicts released from prison reoffend

whilst in prison inmates learn techniques of offending from other offenders through observational learning and imitation or direct tuition

who did a study to support Sutherland’s differential association theory

Farrington et al.

what was Farrington et al.’s study on differential association theory (method and findings)

longitudinal study on the development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 boys from a deprived area of south London, started when they were 8, 41% convicted of at least one offence from 10 to 50, average conviction career last from 19 to 28 and included 5 convictions, most important childhood risk factors at 8-10 for later offending include family criminality, poverty, poor parenting, 7% were define as chronic offenders because they accounted for about half all officially recorded offences in this study

what is the psychodynamic explanation based on

the id is insufficiently controlled because of problems with development of the superego in the phallic stage

what are the types of inadequate superego in the psychodynamic explanation

weak superego, deviant superego, over-harsh superego

what causes the weak superego and what does it lead to

the same-gender parent is absent during the phallic stage, child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as they cannot identify fully, this makes immoral and offending behaviour more likely

what causes the deviant superego and what does it lead to 

due to identification with a deviant parent in the phallic stage, not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing

what causes the over-harsh superego and what does it lead to

an excessively punitive parenting style leads to a child with an excessively punitive superego, crimes are committed to fulfil unconscious desire for punishment

what is the attachment-based explanation int he psychodynamic explanation

Bowlby stated maternal deprivation leads to consequences like affectionless psychopathy- lack of feeling guilt and empathy, and engaging in acts of delinquency

what are the different parts of the psychodynamic explanation

superego, attachment-based, defence mechanisms

what is the evidence for the attachment-based explanation of the psychodynamic explanation

44 thieves study by Bowlby

what is the 44 thieves study by Bowlby

shows maternal deprivation theory- he interviewed thieves and their family, 14 of the sample studied showed characteristics of affectionless psychopathy, 12 of the 14 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy, in non-offender group only 2 had early separations