Chapters on Attraction, Prosocial Behavior, and Aggression

Propinquity Effect

Tendency to form relationships with people we encounter often.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure increases liking (not just for people).

Physical Attractiveness

Big influence on initial attraction and somewhat on long-term relationships.

"What is Beautiful is Good" Stereotype

Assumption that attractive people have other positive traits; some cultural differences.

Similarity

Shared interests/values increase attraction more than "opposites attract."

Reciprocity

We like people who like us back.

Attachment Styles

Different patterns of attachment in relationships.

Secure Attachment

Trusting, comfortable with closeness.

Anxious Attachment

Fear of abandonment.

Avoidant Attachment

Discomfort with closeness.

Evolutionary Perspectives

Men value youth/appearance, women value resources.

Destructive/Constructive Behaviors

How people respond to relationship problems (active/passive vs. constructive/destructive actions).

Cultural Differences

Passionate love is more valued in individualistic cultures; collectivist cultures may prioritize family/community.

Social Exchange Theory

We weigh costs and benefits in relationships; stay if benefits outweigh costs.

Equity Theory

We seek fairness in relationships.

Over-benefited

Getting more than giving.

Under-benefited

Giving more than getting.

Short-term vs. Long-term Studies

Long-term harder to conduct (attrition, complexity).

Passionate Love

Intense longing.

Companionate Love

Deep affection and care.

Prosocial Behavior

Any helping behavior.

Altruism

Helping without expecting anything in return.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Empathy prompts true altruistic behavior (but empathy can be limited).

Bystander Effect

More people = less likely to help.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Everyone assumes someone else will act.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Relying on others to define the situation (no one acts = no emergency).

Good Samaritan Study

Darley & Batson (1973) - Seminarians helped less when in a hurry.

Cultural Influences

Collectivist cultures may help in-group more; individualists more likely to help strangers.

Kin Selection

More likely to help relatives, especially in emergencies.

Mood Effects

Good mood = more helping; Bad mood (guilt) can also lead to helping.

Social Exchange Theory (Helping)

Help if rewards outweigh costs.

Overjustification Effect

Rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.

Altruistic Personality

Personality matters but situation is more powerful.

Hostile Aggression

Inflicting harm for its own sake.

Instrumental Aggression

Harm as a means to another goal.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Frustration increases aggression likelihood (especially when goal is close, unexpected).

Social Learning Theory

Aggression learned through imitation (e.g., Bandura's Bobo Doll study).

Media Violence Effects

Leyens et al. (1975, 1977) - violent media increases aggression.

Desensitization

Less emotional reaction to violence over time.

Culture of Honor

Some cultures (e.g., Southern U.S.) endorse violence to protect reputation.

Gender Differences

Men: More physical aggression; Women: More relational aggression (social exclusion, gossip).

Biological Bases

Hormones and brain structures influence aggression (but not memorization-heavy).

Catharsis Hypothesis

Venting anger does not reduce aggression.

Deterring Aggression

Punishment must be prompt, certain, and fair to work.

Cognitive Dissonance

If you hurt someone, you might rationalize it to reduce discomfort.

Components of Prejudice

Cognitive: Stereotypes; Affective: Prejudice (feelings); Behavioral: Discrimination (actions).

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Seeing out-group members as 'all the same.'

Ultimate Attribution Error

Negative behavior by out-group explained by internal traits (different from fundamental attribution error which applies more generally).

Stereotype Threat

Fear of confirming stereotypes can worsen performance.

Steele & Aronson (1995)

Black and white college students took a difficult test. When race was emphasized (told the test measured intelligence), Black students performed worse, showing that anxiety from stereotype threat can harm performance.

Justification-Suppression Model

Prejudices are hidden until 'justifications' are available.

Social Categorization

Natural tendency to sort people; leads to in-group bias and out-group discrimination.

Jane Elliot's Experiment

'Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes' classroom exercise showed rapid creation of prejudice.

Clarks' Doll Study

Black children preferred white dolls, reflecting internalized racism.

Changing Prejudice

Logical arguments alone often fail; emotional appeals, shared goals, intergroup contact more effective.

Reducing Prejudice

Contact must meet conditions (equal status, cooperation, support of authority) to reduce prejudice.

Festinger, Schachter, & Back (1950)

Researchers studied friendships in a housing complex at MIT, finding that people were more likely to become friends with neighbors who lived closer to them.

Hatfield et al. (1966)

Randomly paired college students for a dance; participants' desire for a second date was based mostly on their partner's physical attractiveness.

Darley & Batson (1973)

Seminary students were asked to give a talk and were told they were either early, on time, or late; those who thought they were late were much less likely to help a person in need.

Burnstein et al. (1994)

Participants indicated who they would help in hypothetical life-or-death situations; people were more likely to help close genetic relatives.

Phone Booth Dime Study (Isen & Levin, 1972)

Researchers left dimes in public phone booths; those who found a dime were more likely to help a stranger.

Leyens et al. (1975, 1977)

Belgian teenage boys watched either violent or non-violent films; those who watched violent films showed higher levels of aggression afterward.

Bandura (1961)

Children watched an adult either aggressively beat up or ignore a Bobo doll; kids who saw the aggressive model were more likely to imitate the aggression.

Steele & Aronson (1995)

Study showing that anxiety from stereotype threat can harm performance.

Jane Elliott's Classroom Experiment

Teacher Jane Elliott divided her third-grade class by eye color, showing how easily prejudice can be taught.

Clarks' Doll Experiment (1947)

Black children were shown black and white dolls and asked which they preferred; many chose the white dolls, indicating internalized racism.