Studied by 466 people
Social psychology
the scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
Rarity
Things become harder to observe when they are more rare
Paucity
Describing something doesn't always give the best information
Causal ambiguity
Just because two things go together doesn't mean they're causally
Hard to relate the effects of a phenomena to an initial event
Reverse causality
A situation in which the researcher believes that A results in a change in B, but B, in fact, is causing A
Dependent variable
What measured to see if influenced by independent variable: outcome of effect being studied- ex) measure of aggression shown
Operational definition
A specific way that a variable is manipulated or measured
Internal validity
The extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect
Internal validity in true experiments should be high- advantageous
High internal validity
Confident that variations in the independent variable caused any observed changes in the dependent variable
Low internal validity
If there are alternative explanations for the relationship between variables
Bystander intervention
The more people that are around in a disaster situation, the less likely people are to help.
External validity
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
a disadvantage in most experiments
Mundane realism
The degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
Psychological realism
The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
Random selection
Process of gathering (in a truly random way) a representative sample for a particular study
Allows results to generalize and increases external validity
Behaviorist Approach
Dominant perspective in the 1930's and 40's does not care about what goes on in their head but more just their behavior (Behaviorism)
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
making a schema temporarily accessible
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Seek information that supports expectations
Perseverance effect
the tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even in the face of contradictory information
Bring to mind evidence consistent with feedback; later draw on evidence that's most available
Anchoring heuristic
People use what is available as a starting point, and insufficiently adjust from this anchor.
False consensus effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which our beliefs and behaviors, preferences and choices are relatively common
Monitoring process
The memory of what we are trying to suppress
Also must remember what we are trying to suppress,
Hyper-accessible thought
When an individual tries to suppress thoughts under a high cognitive load, the frequency of those thoughts increases and becomes more accessible than before.
Social perception
How we form impression of and make inferences about other people (what they are thinking or how they are doing)
Basic channels of non-verbal communication
facial expressions, eye contact, body language, and paralanguage
Facial expressions
6 different basic emotions are represented clearly: happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, fear
Universal Emotions
Non-verbal communication (6 Universal Emotions)
African tribes' people and Berkley students Research study-matching facial emotions with what the persons being described in a story is representing. What this data shows is that people can understand the feelings and emotions based off others facial emotions
Eye contact
If avoided, may infer dislike, unfriendliness, or shyness
If continuous, may be considered staring
Body language
position, posture, and movement
gestures (emblems - body movements carrying a specific meaning in a given culture)
Paralanguage
variations in speech, such as pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, and crying
Internal attributions
Ascribe the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings
Blaming the individual, no outside factors
External attribution
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
Consensus
the extent to which other people behave the same way towards the same stimulus
Distinctiveness
the extent to which an individual responds in the same manner to different stimuli or events
Consistency
the extent to which an individual responds to a given stimulus or situation in the same way on different occasions
Correspondence bias
the tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person's behavior was caused by the situation
Perceptional salience
Often attribute things to what appears to be most obvious cause
Influences of attribution
self serving bias, unrealistic optimism, belief in a just world
independent (individualistic) culture
a culture in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others
Interdependent (collectivist) cultures
cultures in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives
social influence
the effect that words, actions, mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviors
individual differences
the aspects of peoples personalities that make them different than others
fundamental attribution error
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which peoples behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors
behaviorism
a school of psychology maintaining that to understand that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment
(when behavior is followed with a reward it is likely to continue, etc)
construals
peoples interpretation of their social environment
gestalt psychology
the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in peoples minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object
basic motives for peoples construals
self esteem motive (need to feel good about ourselves) and the social cognition method (the need to be accurate)
self esteem approach
peoples evaluations of their own self worth; the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
social problems social psychologists attempt to remedy
reducing violence and prejudice, increasing altruism and tolerance, how to convince people to conserve natural resources, practice safe sex, or eat healthier.
cover story
description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose and used to maintain psychological realism
evolutionary approach
developed by darwin, explains the ways in which animals adapt to their environments; natural selection is a central idea to the concept; studies if behaviors are passed down
informed consent
agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment which has been explained in advance
ethnography
the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have.
Interjudge reliability
the level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual.
Archival analysis
a form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g. diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers.
Correlation coefficient
a statistical technique that assess how well you can predict one variable from another- for example, how well you can predict people's weight from their height.
Surveys
research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymous) questions about their attitude or behavior.
accessibility
A mental shortcut and another form of automatic thinking. It helps to reduce time and effort when making judgements but is subject to bias
Universal facial expression
the argument that the primary emotions conveyed by the face are universal.
Decode
to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expxression on condescension and not kind.
Affect blend
facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while the other part of the face registers a different emotion
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Attitudes
Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas.
Group Processes
The study of how individuals behave in and are influenced by groups.
Empirical Inquiry
Using experimentation or measurement to derive answers to questions rather than relying on personal opinion.
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of how evolutionary principles may explain social behavior and psychological traits.
Personality Psychology
The study of individual differences in personality traits and characteristics.
Social Situations
The impact of social contexts on behavior and perception.
Sociology
The study of society, social institutions, and social structures, focusing on societal-level influences on behavior.
Scientific Study
Empirical investigation using systematic methods and empirical evidence.
Observational Method
observing and recording behavior without interference (ex. Ethnography, archival analysis); limitations - inability to establish causality, difficulty in observing private behaviors
Correlational Method
examines relationships between variables to predict behavior (ex. Surveys, analysis of existing data); Limitations - correlation does not imply causation, potential for confounding variables.
Experimental Method
investigates casual relationships by observing the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable; limitations - experiments may not be practical or feasible
Correlation Vs. Causation
Correlation indicates a relationship but does not prove causation; drawing causal conclusions from correlational data can lead to errors.
Independent variable
the variable manipulated in an experiment to observe its impact on the dependent variable.
Random Assignment to Condition
A process ensuring participants are equally likely to be in any condition of an experiment, minimizing the influence of participant characteristics.
Probability level (p-value)
A statistical measure determining the likelihood that observed results are due to chance rather than the independent variable.
Field Experiments
Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory. Increased external validity - participants are unaware it’s an experiment (Latane and Darley bystander intervention)
Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist
The trade-off between internal and external validity in research (i.e. it’s difficult to achieve both high internal and external validity in one study, researchers must prioritize one over the other); resolution involves a combination of laboratory and field studies
Replications
Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings; essential for testing external validity and determining the reliability of research findings.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to assess the reliability of an independent variable's effect; helps establish the generalizability of findings.
Basic Research
Studies conducted to understand human behavior for intellectual curiosity; focused on theoretical development and aims to answer why people behave as they do.
Applied Research
Studies designed to solve a particular social problem; focused on addressing real-world issues
Cross-Cultural Research
Research conducted with members of different cultures to explore universal or culture-specific psychological processes; limitations - must avoid cultural imposition and ensure consistent interpretations.
Social Neuroscience
The study of the relationship between biological processes and social behavior; investigates hormonal, immune, and neurological aspects (ex. EEG, MRI)
Open Science Movement
A movement focusing on making scientific processes more open, transparent, and replicable by sharing materials, procedures, and data; emphasizes transparency and collaboration
Ethical Dilemmas in Social Psychology
difficulties psychologists face regarding the balance between realistic, engaging experiments and the well-being of participants. Researchers must prioritize participant welfare when creating real-world scenarios
Deception in Social Psychology
Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will transpire. Used when necessary for hypothesis testing and involves contrived events perceived as real.
Debriefing
Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired; aids in undoing any discomfort
Impact of Deception Studies
studies consistently find that mild discomfort is acceptable. Participants often understand the necessity of deception, some even report learning from and enjoying deception studies more
American Psychological Association (APA)
provides a framework for ethical decision-making while ensuring dignity and safety of research participants
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A group of scientists, nonscientists, and non-affiliated members that review psychological research proposals to ensure they meet ethical guidelines; required for institutions seeking federal funding
Social Cognition
How people think about themselves and the social world, encompassing the selection, interpretation, memory, and use of social information for judgments and decisions.
Automatic Thinking
Nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless thought process, often occurring without awareness; rapid assessment of new situations
Schemas
mental structures organizing knowledge about the social world, influencing information processing, interpretation, and memory. Helps us understand new situations based on past experiences and fills in gaps in knowledge
Controlled Thinking
The slow, sequential, rules-based mental process which requires effortful attention. It helps us reason and come to general, analytic answers to questions.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The process where expectations about a person influence one's behavior toward them, leading the person to behave consistently with those expectations (Rosenthal & Jacobson)
Automatic Processing in Social Information
Rapid and unconscious mental processes, including the use of schemas and self-fulfilling prophecies, to simplify and interpret social information; Helps manage vast and ambiguous social information.
Automatic Goal Pursuit
The process of automatically selecting and pursuing goals in everyday situations.
Goal Priming
The activation or priming of a specific goal in the mind, influencing subsequent behavior.
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