GOVT Unit 2

Conference committee

A joint House–Senate committee that reconciles differences between two versions of a bill.

Political appointees

Top executive‐branch officials appointed by the president, often requiring Senate confirmation.

Judicial activism

A vigorous approach where judges interpret the Constitution and laws broadly, often overturning legislative or executive actions.

Filibuster

A Senate procedure allowing any senator to speak indefinitely to delay floor action; ended only by a cloture vote.

Executive order

A directive issued by the president that has the force of law without needing congressional approval.

Judicial restraint

A judicial philosophy favoring minimal interference with the actions of the legislative and executive branches.

Legislative hold

An informal Senate practice whereby one or more senators can delay a bill or nomination from reaching the floor.

Going public

A presidential strategy of appealing directly to citizens to build pressure on Congress.

Textualism

A method of statutory interpretation that focuses strictly on the ordinary meaning of the legal text at the time of enactment.

Congressional caucus

A group of members of Congress who organize to pursue common legislative objectives or share demographic interests.

Cabinet

The heads of the fifteen executive departments who advise the president.

Marbury v. Madison

The 1803 Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review.

Floor (Congress)

The full chamber (House or Senate) where formal debate and voting on legislation occur.

EOP

Executive Office of the President: agencies that support the president’s policy, communications, and administrative functions.

Common law

A legal system based on judicial decisions and precedents rather than solely on statutes.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress, with 435 members apportioned by population and two‑year terms.

Chief of Staff

The president’s senior aide who manages White House staff operations and the president’s schedule.

Precedent

A prior judicial decision that courts use as an authoritative guide in later, similar cases.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress, with 100 members (two per state) serving six‑year terms.

The spoils system

A patronage practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters; largely ended by civil‑service reform.

Civil law

The branch of law dealing with disputes between private parties over legal duties and obligations.

Reapportionment

The process of redistributing House seats among the states based on the decennial census.

Universalistic politics

A merit‑based bureaucracy governed by transparent, impersonal rules rather than political favoritism.

Criminal law

The branch of law that defines crimes and prescribes punishments for their violation.

President pro tempore

The senator, typically with the longest service in the majority party, who presides over the Senate in the vice president’s absence.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

The 1883 law that established a merit‑based system for federal employment and ended the spoils system.

Plaintiff

The party who initiates a civil lawsuit by filing a complaint in court.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, elected by its members and responsible for setting the legislative agenda.

The Final Rule

The definitive version of a regulation issued by an agency after the public‐comment period.

Defendant

The party against whom a lawsuit or criminal charge is brought.

Earmark

A legislative provision directing funds to specific projects or recipients, often within a member’s district.

Secretary of Homeland Security

The head of the Department of Homeland Security, responsible for domestic security policy and agencies.

The rule of four

A Supreme Court practice that at least four justices must vote to grant a writ of certiorari.

Standing committee

A permanent congressional committee with fixed jurisdiction over particular policy areas.

Bureaucratic pathologies

Problems within bureaucracies—like turf wars, inertia, and clientelism—that hinder effective administration.

Concurrent opinion

A Supreme Court opinion by one or more justices who agree with the majority outcome but for different reasons.

Committee hearing

A session where congressional committees collect testimony and information on proposed legislation or oversight issues.

Proposed rule

A draft regulation published by an agency in the Federal Register for public comment before issuance of a final rule.

Amicus curiae brief

A “friend of the court” document filed by non‑parties to provide additional perspectives or expertise in a case.

Committee markup session

A meeting where congressional committees debate, amend, and rewrite proposed legislation before reporting it out.

Street-level bureaucrats

Frontline public‐sector workers (e.g., police officers, social workers) who interact directly with citizens and implement policies.

Unanimous consent

A Senate procedure that expedites proceedings by agreeing to a measure without objection.

Civil servants

Permanent government employees hired and promoted on the basis of merit rather than political affiliation.

Cloture vote

A Senate vote (requiring 60 senators) that ends debate on a bill or nomination and allows a vote to proceed.

Regulatory capture

The phenomenon where a regulatory agency becomes dominated by the very industry it is charged with regulating.

Voice vote

A congressional vote where members call out “yea” or “nay” without individual names being recorded.

Principal-agent theory

A framework describing how elected officials (principals) control bureaucrats (agents) who implement policies.

Roll-call vote

A congressional vote in which each member’s vote is recorded individually.

Whistle‑blower

A government employee who exposes wrongdoing, corruption, or illegal activity within an agency.

Veto/override

The president’s rejection of a bill (veto) and Congress’s power to enact it into law despite a veto with a two‑thirds vote in both chambers (override).

Overhead democracy

The idea that citizens influence government indirectly by electing officials who then oversee the bureaucracy.

Article 2 of the Constitution

The section of the U.S. Constitution that vests executive power in the president and outlines the presidency.

Major questions doctrine

A legal principle that courts require clear congressional authorization for agency action on issues of major economic or political significance.

President’s expressed powers

Powers explicitly granted to the president by the Constitution, mainly in Article II.

Chevron doctrine

A judicial principle directing courts to defer to federal agencies’ reasonable interpretations of ambiguous statutes they administer.

Delegated powers

Powers that Congress grants to the president or executive agencies to implement and administer laws.

FOIA

Freedom of Information Act (1966): a law requiring federal agencies to disclose nonexempt records upon request.

Inherited powers

Powers assumed by presidents that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are deemed necessary to perform their duties.

Litigation

The process of resolving disputes through the court system.

Executive agreements

International agreements entered into by the president that do not require Senate ratification.

Mediation

A form of alternative dispute resolution in which a neutral third party helps disputing parties reach a settlement.

Executive privilege

The president’s asserted right to withhold confidential communications from Congress or the courts.

The Supreme Court

The highest federal court, consisting of nine justices, with ultimate authority over constitutional and federal law.

Commander‑in‑chief

The president’s role as head of the U.S. armed forces, as specified in Article II.

District courts

The federal trial courts where most federal cases begin.

Unitary executive theory

The doctrine that the president has direct control over the entire executive branch.

Circuit courts

The thirteen U.S. courts of appeals that review decisions of federal district courts.

Signing statement

A written comment issued by the president when signing a bill, sometimes indicating constitutional objections or interpretation.

Judicial review

The power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.