developmental psych exam 3

emotional attachment

tendencies to seek proximity (closeness) to objects to whom we are bonded (ex: the tendency for children to follow their parents, because they are less likely to experience danger)

oxytocin

referred to as the “love” hormone due to its potential role in fostering attachment. 

social referencing

involves a child monitoring the reactions of others in order to figure out how to react in an ambiguous situation (ex: tim is trying to decide whether or not to crawl forward. in order to help him make the decision, he looks at his mother’s face. ff she smiles and nods, he moves forward.)

emotional regulation

the process of initiating, maintaining, hiding, or changing our emotions.

internalizing; if their parent is overly emotional (angry, upset, etc.) frequently, the child may not be able to internalize anything soothing

we develop the ability to regulate our emotions by *_____* the soothing presence and calming words of a key attachment figure.

synchronized routine

develops as a parent and their infant interact; for example, a parent and their infant take turns uttering the same sound, play peek-a-boo with each other, or present the same facial expression.

gradually over a course of many months

a parent’s attachment with their child builds \[gradually/instantly\]

undiscriminating social responsiveness phase

the child allows anyone (including strangers) to pick them up, interact with them, or touch them.

discriminating social responsiveness

indicates that a child has formed an attachment to/preference for a primary caregiver.

stranger anxiety

shows when a child develops discriminating social responsiveness; it is less likely to occur when a parent is close by, lessens when a caregiver responds positively, and is influenced by the appearance of the person (whether they appear threatening or non-threatening to the child)

separation anxiety

generally appears when a child forms their first *genuine* attachment at about the age of 6-7 months; peaks at first and is then followed by stranger anxiety.

strange situations test

the parent leaves their young child in a strange, unfamiliar setting; used to determine the type of attachment a young child has to others.

secure attachment

shown when a very young child is upset when their parent leaves, but is quickly comforted when they return; these kids are generally comfortable with most other children and enjoy playing with them

resistant attachment

where an infant “clings on” to their parent and may grab onto them to try to prevent them from leaving. when the parent tries to pick the child up after returning, the infant resists being held; often when a parent leaves during a separation episode, the child will become *very* upset with their parent and may continue crying even when they return. 

avoidant attachment

characterized by a noteworthy lack of interest in exploring, little distress displayed when separated from a parent/caregiver, and a lack of contact when the caregiver returns. the child may come across as cold or emotionally distant. 

disorganized/disoriented attachment

a young child will act dazed or confused when their parent returns after separation; the child may run halfway to their parent, stop, turn, and run the other way. this behavior is often a product of fear of the parent but may also develop when the parent shows signs of frequent fear instead. 

early feeding experiences

Freud and John B Watson believed that the attachment relationship between parent and child occurs as a result of _____.

contact comfort

displayed by harlow & zimmerman, the idea that contact with a soft, cuddly caregiver is more important than specific feeding experiments with regard to forming attachment

“in-your-face” mothers

often raise babies who develop an avoidant attachment style (ex: lisa is very high-strung, but her baby is very laid back and calm. when lisa is overly-stimulating to her child, her baby becomes more avoidant of her; she does not know when to leave the infant alone)

disorganized/disoriented attachment style

the *_____* is the attachment style best associated with having a mother who is abusing drugs. 

emotionally sensitive

a(n) *_____* parent can do a lot to convert a difficult baby into an infant who can regulate emotions and who is socially confident

disinhibited attachment

most likely to show indiscriminate friendliness and difficulty in reciprocal social interactions (those involving cooperation & trade), often as a result of long durations of deprivation.

characteristics of quality daycare

having or supplying responsive caregivers; age-appropriate stimulation activities; child-to-caregiver ratio of about 3:1 for infants

curious and willing to explore their environment

securely attached infants during preschool tend to be _____.

cooperative play

involves children engaging in activities directed toward a common goal with one another.

pretend play

demonstration requires that a child must have the ability to construct a mental representation of an event; the event is *not* something that a child directly experiences, just in their imagination. 

sociometric techniques

used to measure who is liked or disliked in a group

neglected child in peer groups

a category in which a child is rarely chosen as a workmate or playmate. they are *not* disliked by most peers; this child tends to be shy and quiet, and, when asked to play, they typically say “nope!”

rejected child in peer groups

other kids may express their contempt for the child. the child will probably again experience this status the next year, especially if this child is aggressive. these kids are at risk of becoming juvenile delinquents and tend to enter new situations expecting to be ostracized.

controversial children in peer groups

children who are both well-liked by many peers and disliked by others

associated factors in childhood popularity

being physically attractive, intelligent, and socially competent.

co-rumination

involves talking to a friend or friends about your emotional problems (depression, anxiety, etc.); one big disadvantage is that engaging in this regularly can increase the negative effects of one’s emotional problems. 

clique

a group of friends who get together for the purpose of socializing; they may tend to have similar hobbies and wear similar clothes. 

crowds

based on social reputation. one may not even be aware that they are a part of one; they can involve “stoners”, “dweebs”, “goths”, etc. 

brown’s initiation stage of dating & commitment

the focus is on seeing oneself as capable of having a romantic relationship

brown’s status stage of dating & commitment

dating may serve as an entry to a “higher position” in social hierarchies. (ex: dating the head cheerleader to be in with the popular kids)

brown’s affection stage of dating & commitment

the *relationship* itself becomes the focus and romantic relationships become more personal.

brown’s bonding stage of dating & commitment

emphasis turns to emotional intimacy and long-term commitments; people are in a relationship “for the long haul” at this point

broader

younger adults have *_____* social networks than middle-aged individuals.

socioemotional selectivity theory

this theory states that older people tend to seek relationships that are emotionally meaningful and may drop relationships that are not (quality over quantity)

positivity effect

the fact that older people pay more attention to and remember more positive information on average than negative information, making them less likely to experience negative emotions like anxiety.

filter theory of mate selection

states that potential romantic partnerships begin with both people looking for similarities in their partner to “filter through” potential matches, like race, socioeconomic status, and education, followed by looking for similarities in *inner* qualities, such as values and beliefs.

sternberg’s triangular theory of love

involves intimacy, passion, and commitment.

consummate love

involves essentially everything one could want in a lover; occurs in about 10% of real-life relationships

companionate love

involves high levels of intimacy and commitment, but low levels of passion. we often see this in couples that have been married for a long time and are now elderly.

preoccupied attachment

develops from resistant attachment; “I like people, but they don’t seem to like me!”

dismissing attachment

develops from avoidant attachment; “I don’t need people, I’m fine on my own!”

characteristics of adult friendships/relationships

for elderly people, old friends are the best friends; the quality of an adult’s social relationships is closely related to a sense of wellbeing; for most married people, spouses are the most important confidant they have

family systems approach

suggests that every relationship within the system has an impact on every other person in the system

nuclear family

consists of a mother, a father, and one or more children.

extended family household

includes parents, their children, and grandparents/other relatives, and it provides for shared responsibility for raising children.

reconstituted family

*must* contain a step-parent (ex: Ben & Hellen live with their mom and her new husband, along with their new baby)

delayed, occurring for the first time at age 25-26 on average, versus age 21 in 1970

today, the age of marriage is *_____* compared to previous generations.

indirect effects within the family system

spouses’ relationships with each other often affect their children, even when the spouses do not expose their child to their interactions (ex: arguing)

authoritarian/autocratic parents

tend to have fixed, rigid rules that are often applied without exception; these parents are more likely to administer physical punishment when the child does something wrong.

authoritative parents

tend to display high acceptance, responsiveness, and also moderately high demandingness; however, these parents are willing to listen to their children and will be flexible with rules if the circumstances call for it. 

permissive/indulgent parents

tend to display high acceptance, responsiveness, and low demandingness/control, often allowing their children to do what they want; often raise children who lack self-control.

neglectful/rejecting parents

involve circumstances where the parents do not seem to care about what the child needs and is not involved in teaching the child appropriate behaviors.

low.

hostile, antisocial children who abuse drugs tend to have parents whose parenting style is low/high in acceptance and control

socioeconomic differences in parenting

stressors associated with being poor; fewer resources (financial and otherwise) to invest in children; heavy reliance on an authoritarian parenting style.

resentment & dependency behaviors; can be decreased by asking the child to help take care of the new baby.

the arrival of a new baby is likely to promote feelings of _____ in existing firstborn children

sibling rivalry

typically characterized by resentment and jealousy between siblings; may have an evolutionary explanation in the competition for the limited parental resources. 

more

when an American couple has a second child, the father may become \[more/less\] involved in caring for the children

boomerang effect

the idea that adult children returning home is most likely the result of their unemployment

companionate grandparenting

involves frequent contact between grandparent and grandchild, with the primary goal being the enjoyment of one another; grandparents in this style are not so involved that they have to worry about parenting responsibility. 

highest

marital satisfaction tends to be _____ in middle-aged couples in which both partners have pleasant personality characteristics

middle generation squeeze

refers to middle-aged adults who find themselves simultaneously caring for both younger (kids) and older (parents) generations; this is why this generation is also called the “*sandwich generation.*”

cohabiting

a romantically involved, unmarried couple living together; these couples who engage in cohabitation before marriage tend to be more likely to divorce statistically than first-time married couples who did *not* live together before marriage.

more; less

in general, adults who never marry tend to be \[more/less\] happy than single individuals who have been divorced, but tend to be \[more/less\] happy than those who are married

spillover effect

when work effects one’s home life and vice-versa

egalitarian (equal status)

gay and lesbian couples tend to have more _____ relationships than do married heterosexual couples

factors that make divorce likely

if the couple gets married as teenagers, if a child was conceived before marriage, and/or if the couple is of low socioeconomic status (when kids arrive, this stressed couple may become even more stressed, financially and otherwise)

custodial; non-custodial

if a couple just got divorced, it is usually most likely that the \[custodial/non-custodial\] parent will be more impatient, whereas the \[custodial/non-custodial\] parent will be more indulgent

common reasons for divorce in the US

money issues, sexual incompatibility, alcohol abuse of one or both partners, lack of communication, emotional fulfillment, or incompatibility.

major depressive disorder symptoms

* Significant weight loss or gain
* Sleeping too much or too little
* Feelings of worthlessness or extreme guilt
* Suicidal thoughts or actions

developmental pathways model

different developmental pathways can lead to the *same* outcome (ex: depression can develop by different means but have the exact same symptoms).

personality or genetic factors

if a diathesis for a psychological disorder is *strong,* _____ will play a significant role in whether the disorder is expressed

autism spectrum disorder

involves persistent deficits in social communication and interaction. this may include abnormalities in eye contact, poorly integrated verbal and non-verbal communication with others, restricted/repetitive behavior patterns & interests, stereotyped or repetitive motor movements (ex: flapping ones arms, head banging, rocking back and forth, etc.), inflexible adherence to routine, and fixated interests.

amygdala and the frontal cortex

brain areas that have been implicated as a possible cause for behavior problems displayed by autistic individuals

theory of mind

the ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, desires, feelings, etc.) to oneself and to others. this includes the ability to realize the fact that others may have different beliefs and feelings than you do. 

mirror neuron simulation hypothesis

based on the idea that mirror neurons in the brain allow us to relate the feelings of others to our own experiences. due to dysfunction in the mirror neurons, most autistic individuals are unable to experience this.

significant gains; young children who do not have severe intellectual disabilities

the use of *behavioral* and *cognitive* interventions with autistic children (ex: reinforcing smiling at peers) can lead to _____, especially in _____.

failure to thrive

involves the infant not gaining weight in a way that is normal or expected and having an overall depressed temperament; in otherwise healthy infants, this is usually the result of having unaffectionate or depressed caregivers

internalizing disorders

those where a person experiences inner turmoil such as that you may see in depression and anxiety cases. these may be more disruptive to the self than other issues/disorders and tend to be more commonly diagnosed in girls/women. 

separation anxiety disorder

involves clingy behavior on the child’s part. there may be *general* fear/apprehension, nightmares, headaches, stomachaches, or nausea.

inhibited children

those who were shy, anxious, and easily upset at age 3 and were the most likely to be diagnosed with depression at age 21

less

depressed preschool aged kids are \[more/less\] likely than adults to display *cognitive* symptoms of depression, such as hopelessness

protective factors

help kids from becoming maladjusted in the face of risk or adversity (ex: you can have genes that protect you from anxiety and depression *or* genes that predispose you to those disorders).

cognitive behavioral treatments

tend to be the most effective in treating depression in children (versus therapies involving psychoanalytic or drug methods)

anorexia nervosa

literally means “nervous loss of appetite.” it is defined as a refusal to maintain at least 85% of a person’s expected weight, as a result of a distorted body image and an often obsessive desire to lose weight/fear of gaining weight.

bulimia nervosa

a tendency to consume large quantities of food in a small amount of time and then *purging* the food via laxatives or vomiting, as well as a feeling/fear of being “fat” and shame about the disorder/the overeating (in contrast to anorexia, where the person may feel proud of the disorder)

ineffective drugs and resistance to admitting one has a problem

two biggest reasons for difficulty in treating anorexia

ruminative coping

the act of dwelling on past problems and constant mental rehashing of issues.

key risk factors of adolescent suicide

family pathology, access to firearms, stressful life events, and a history of behavioral problems (like binge drinking, risky sex, aggression, eating disorders, etc.)

dementia

a progressive loss of neural functioning

alzheimer’s disease

the most common form of dementia, often involving trouble with memory (first signs involve difficulty remembering recently learned material)

neurofibrillary tangles

occur in cases where alzheimer’s disease has progressed significantly, operating much like tangled telephone wires through which messages pass only with difficulty (if at all).

beta-amyloids

sticky brain materials, formed at the core of senile plaques and are often associated with alzheimer’s disease.

19th chromosome; 21st chromosome

a gene segment on the _____ has been implicated as a likely cause of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease, with the _____ being implicated in more early-onset Alzheimer’s cases

cognitive reserve

extra brain power that people sometimes rely on when dementia/alzheimer’s begins to take its toll on brain functioning