mcat missed questions

protelysis

aggreagation

adaptive immunity

new immunity

innate immuinty

immunity we are born with

t and b

t cells primarily target infected or cancerous cells through cell-mediated responses, while B (humoral response) cells target pathogens in body fluids through antibody-mediated responses.

g-c base pairing

higher metling points stronger strutures

disulfide bridges

held by cycstiene

polydester bonds

held by nucltdtodes

glycosidic linkages

sugar polymers are linked by a-1,4-bonds (like one long chain), and the branching points of that are made of 1,6-linkages (which would ultimately form multiple chains of a-1,4-linked sugars)

GI gut bacteria

PS into short chain fatty acids

endrocien signalling

ndocrine signaling is a form of long-distance cell communication in which hormones are secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream to target distant tissues or organs

paracrine signaling

Paracrine signaling involves local effects on nearby cells, while endocrine signaling involves hormones released into the bloodstream to affect distant target cells.

autocrine signaling

Autocrine signaling differs from paracrine signaling in that autocrine effects occur within the same cell that produces the signal, while paracrine effects occur in nearby cells.

Erythrocytes

he primary function of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen to tissues and organs and to transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs for removal from the body.

Fibroblast

The primary function of fibroblasts is to produce and maintain the extracellular matrix and collagen, providing structural support to tissues and aiding in wound healing.

Monocytes

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system by differentiating into macrophages and dendritic cells, which help to engulf and destroy pathogens and debris

glycoprotein

can’t cross membranes so stays in plasma membrain

pronated

low ph

deprotonated

high ph

Malate dehydrogenase

malate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of malate to oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, using NAD+ as a cofactor to produce NADH.

Succinate dehydrogenase

In the citric acid cycle, succinate dehydrogenase catalyzes the conversion of succinate to fumarate, which is the only enzyme that is part of both the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

n the citric acid cycle, isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form alpha-ketoglutarate, a reaction catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase, which produces NADH and releases carbon dioxide

Α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA in the citric acid cycle, utilizing NAD+ to produce NADH and releasing carbon dioxide.

K_eq > 1

Exergonic with low activation energy level

high blood glucose

Pancreatic beta cells secrete insulin

low blood glucose

pancreatic alpha cells secrete glucagon

unit membrane model

The unit membrane model is a biological hypothesis that describes the structure of cell membranes as consisting of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded within it, creating a semi-permeable membrane.

fluid membrane model

Definition: The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of cell membranes as a flexible and dynamic arrangement of various components, including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, that allows for movement and functionality.

Contraction of the diaphragm results in:

decreased intrathoracic pressure and inhalation

enhancer seqeunce

n enhancer sequence is a regulatory DNA element that can increase the transcription of a gene by providing binding sites for transcription factors, which can enhance the assembly of the transcriptional machinery at the promoter.

coding sequnce

A coding sequence refers to a portion of a gene's DNA that is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) and translated into a protein. It contains the necessary information to generate a specific polypeptide chain.

glysoic linkages

hydrolases

diggestih discchrihes (lactase)

Enterocytes of the duodenal villi

prmidines

c-t

purines

a-g

um > m

1um> 10^-6

1mm>1m

1mm>10^-3

molarity

m=n/v

moles

n=MV

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously know both the position and momentum of a particle with absolute precision.

Pauli Equation

The Pauli equation describes the behavior of a spin-1221​ particle, such as an electron, in a magnetic field.

Bose-Einstein equation

Bose-Einstein equation describes the average number of bosons in a given quantum state as a function of temperature and the energy of the state

polarity

increases with electronegativity so N,O…

ubiquinone

biquinone, also known as coenzyme Q10, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain and energy production in cells.

ubiqunol

Ubiquinol is the reduced form of ubiquinone, serving as a more potent antioxidant and is critical for cellular energy production.

Lyase

cleavage of a bond w/o water

ligase

joining of 2 molecules (synthetase)

• Isomerase

-rearrangement of functional groups w/in a molecule (mutase)

• Transferase

• transfer of functional group

hydrolase

cleavage of bond w/ water

Oxidoreductase

transfer electrons through H atoms or hydride ions (dehydrogenase)

boyles law

p1v1=p2v2

charles law

v1/t1=v2/t2

the number of neutrons

atomic mass-# of protons

ml>cm

1ml>1cm^-3

Fluorescent energy

absorbs radiation

secondary structures

alpha and beta sheets

alpha sheets

are chiral

beta sheets

achiral

triery structures

held by polypeptides

polypeptide structure

n terminus has amion group other terminus has carboxyl group

disulfide bonds

held by cysteine groups

salt bridges

held by lysine groups

steroids

a form of lipid molecule

column binding

affinity

size exclusion

weight

cation/anion exchange

by different ions

entromieres vs distromiers

share similar properties but smell

indole

his

enzyme inhibitor equation

decrease km affinity increases

no substrate needed

increases km decreases affinity

more substrate needed

competitive inhibition

bind to the same site as the substrate (so they compete for binding). This means that it decreases the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate (raising Km)

mixed inhibition

they can either increase or decrease the enzymes affinity for the substrate (depending on if they bind the enzyme-substrate complex or just the enzyme

noncompetitive inhibition

don’t bind to the same site as the substrate (as in, they don’t compete for binding), meaning that the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate doesn’t change (Km stays the same). But, these inhibitors bind to allosteric sites and do something to stop the activity of the enzyme, which lowers the maximal reaction velocity (Vmax).

uncompetitive inhibition

bind to the enzyme-substrate complex and keep it together. By preventing the enzyme and substrate from dissociating from one another, the enzyme’s affinity goes up, and Km and goes down

spontaneous reaction

delta g <0 and low ea

nonspontaneous

delta g>0 and high ea

E3-E1

endothermic

e3-e2

exothermic

electron acceptor

those with higher electronegativity so S,O,N..

To improve boiling points in distillations

Slowing the heating of the distillation flask allows you to more precisely control the temp

enantiomers “how to tell the difference”

chiral centers( c connected to four different atoms excluding double bonds)

vacuum distillation

helps with decreasing boiling point

carbonic acid

Carbonic acid is highly unstable and rapidly decomposes to H2O and CO2.

Color participates

are formed by metals (nominally transition metals with unfilled d orbitals)

orientation with chair conformation

help with forming bonds/or not

Rf values and polarity

higher Rf values indicating less polar compounds that travel further on the plate, while lower Rf values indicate more polar compounds that travel shorter distance

strong bases

are seen as OH byproducts

strong acids

are seen in CIO-s

kcal to cal

1kca to 1000cal

OH bonds

the more oh bonding the incrsed in boiling point

what makes a good nucelphile

something that is basic, wealky charged anything opposite of polar: being electron-rich, having a negative charge, being weakly electronegative, and having low steric hindrance, allowing it to readily donate an electron pair to form a bond. 

aromaitcs steric hindrance

can either be nucleophile or electrophile

the number of peptides can be calculated as

n! (n factorial). Ex so if there were 4 amino acids then we would do 4x3x2x1 If there were 5 we would do 5x4x3x2x1

Electric condutivity : covalent and noncovalent bonds

non covalent bonds=nonmetals thuse can’t conduct electricity

covalent bonds= can have metals thus conduct electricity

entropy delta s

disorder decreases with phase changes so from gas to solid

deviations from gas law

high pressure low temp

higher KI

menas incresed in temprature

wave speed

waves travel faster when going from gas to solid (longer wavelength)