essay questions

How did the enthusiasm for republican government express itself in the Articles of Confederation?

The Articles of Confederation created a weak central government with limited powers, reflecting a strong distrust of centralized authority after the experience with British monarchy.

1. Sovereignty of States: Each state retained its sovereignty, freedom, and independence.
2. Unicameral Legislature: A single-house Congress with equal representation for each state.
3. Limited Federal Powers: Congress could declare war, make treaties, and manage postal services, but lacked the power to tax or enforce laws effectively, requiring state approval for most actions.

What did Congress accomplish under the Articles of Confederation?

Despite its weaknesses, the Confederation Congress achieved several significant successes:

1. Victory in the Revolutionary War: Successfully negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), formally ending the war and securing independence.
2. Land Ordinances: Enacted the Land Ordinance of $1785$, which established a system for surveying and selling western lands, and the Northwest Ordinance of $1787$, which provided a method for admitting new states to the Union, protected civil liberties, and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Why did many Americans eventually come to believe the Articles of Confederation needed revision?

A growing number of Americans believed the Articles needed revision due to various shortcomings:

1. Economic Instability: Congress could not directly tax, leading to financial difficulties, mounting war debt, and a lack of sound currency.
2. Interstate Disputes: States often levied tariffs on each other's goods and squabbled over trade, hindering national economic cohesion.
3. Weak Enforcement: The national government lacked the power to enforce laws, leading to a perception of disunity and inefficiency.
4. Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787): This armed uprising by Massachusetts farmers highlighted the inability of the national government to maintain order and protect property, underscoring the need for a stronger central authority.

Why was the Constitutional Convention (1787) and the document it produced so controversial?

The Constitutional Convention and the resulting U.S. Constitution were controversial for several reasons:

1. Secrecy of Proceedings: The convention was held in secret, raising suspicions about the motivations of the delegates.
2. Shift in Power: The Constitution proposed a much stronger national government than the Articles, prompting fears among Anti-Federalists of a return to tyranny and the erosion of state sovereignty and individual liberties.
3. Lack of Bill of Rights: Initially, the Constitution did not include a Bill of Rights, which greatly concerned those who feared governmental overreach.
4. Slavery Compromises: The document included contentious compromises regarding slavery, such as the "Three-fifths Compromise" and the allowance for the continuation of the slave trade for $20$ years, which alienated various groups.

How did the U.S. Constitution eventually come to be ratified?

The Constitution was ratified through a vigorous debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists in state conventions:

1. Federalist Papers: Pro-Constitution arguments were powerfully articulated by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay in The Federalist Papers, which explained the document's principles and structure.
2. Promise of a Bill of Rights: Federalists appeased Anti-Federalist concerns by promising to add a Bill of Rights immediately after ratification, which helped secure crucial votes.
3. State-by-State Ratification: Ratification required approval by at least nine of the thirteen states. Delaware was the first, and New Hampshire's ratification made it official. Virginia and New York's later ratifications were crucial due to their size and influence.

What were the main conflicting visions of Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson for the United States?

Hamilton and Jefferson had fundamentally different visions for the U.S.:

1. Hamilton (Federalist): Envisioned a strong, centralized federal government; an industrial and commercial economy; a national bank; protective tariffs; and a loose interpretation of the Constitution (implied powers).
2. Jefferson (Democratic-Republican): Advocated for a limited federal government; an agrarian republic based on independent farmers; states' rights; and a strict interpretation of the Constitution (enumerated powers).

What were the main points of contention between Hamilton and Jefferson and how did they play out in 1790s politics?

Key points of contention played out as partisan divides:

1. National Bank: Hamilton's proposal for a national bank was fiercely opposed by Jefferson, who argued it was unconstitutional and benefited the wealthy. This debate led to the formation of the first political parties.
2. Economic Policy: Hamilton's financial plan (assumption of state debts, tariffs) favored commercial and manufacturing interests, while Jefferson championed agrarian interests and feared federal overreach.
3. Foreign Policy: Federalists, led by Hamilton, tended to favor Great Britain in European conflicts, while Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson, supported revolutionary France. This played out in debates over neutrality, Jay's Treaty, and the XYZ Affair.

What were key aspects of Thomas Jefferson's presidency (1801 - 1809)?

Jefferson's presidency focused on limiting federal power and promoting agrarianism:

1. Louisiana Purchase (1803): Acquired vast territory from France, doubling the size of the U.S., despite Jefferson's constitutional qualms.
2. Embargo Act (1807): A self-imposed trade embargo aimed at pressuring Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars, which severely damaged the American economy.
3. Reduction of National Debt and Military: Jefferson sought to reduce national debt and cut government spending, including scaling back the military.

What were key aspects of James Madison's presidency (1809 - 1817) and the War of 1812?

Madison's presidency was largely defined by foreign policy challenges and the War of 1812:

1. Causes of War of 1812: British impressment of American sailors, interference with American trade, and British support for Native American resistance on the frontier.
2. Key Events: Failed invasion of Canada, burning of Washington D.C. by the British, Battle of New Orleans (1815).
3. Treaty of Ghent (1814): Formally ended the war, restoring pre-war boundaries; it addressed none of the original causes but fostered a sense of national pride.
4. Post-War Nationalism: The war, though militarily a draw, spurred American nationalism, industrial growth, and a desire for greater economic independence.

Why did National Republican policy develop as it did after 1815 and how did it lead to the rise of Andrew Jackson?

After the War of 1812, a new era of nationalism (