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biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
sensory neuron
neurons that carry incoming information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
dendrite
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon
the extension of a neuron ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
multiple sclerosis
disease → communication to muscle slows → eventual loss of muscle control
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
resting potential
positive outside/ negative inside state of a neuron
selectively permeable
axon’s surface is selective about what it allows in
depolarization
when a change inside a cell that causes the distribution of electric charges to alter, leaving the cell with a less negative charge than the outside
refractory period
resting cause during polarization
excitatory
__ currents are those that prompt one neuron to share information with the next through an acton potential
inhibitory
__ currents reduce the probability that such a transfer will take place
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
reuptake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron (happens when too many neurotransmitter cross the synaptic cleft)
acetylcholine (ACh)
one of the best-understood neurotransmitters → muscle contraction
endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters lined to pain control and to pleasure
antagonists
bind receptors but their effect is instead to block neurotransmitters functioning
nervous system
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
nerves
bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, gland, and sense organs
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
the park of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
neural networks
the brain’s neurons cluster into work groups called neural networks
spinal cord
information highway connecting the PNS to the brain
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
endocrine system
the body’s slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sis just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
pituitary gland
the endocrine system’s most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
lesion
tissue destruction; a brain _ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of the electrical activity that sweeps across the brains surface. these waves are measured by electrobes placed on the scalp
CT (computed tomography) scan
a series of x-ray photographs from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan
a technique that uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. _ scans show brain anatomy
fMRI (functional MRI) scan
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. _ scans shoe brain function
brain stem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the _ is responsible for automatic survival functions
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
pons
helps coordinate movements
reticular formation
a nerve network that plays an important role in controlling arousal
thalamus
the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
cerebellum
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
doughnut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion
cerebral hemispheres
two halves of the brain
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward
reward deficiency syndrome
a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that lead people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feeling
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering
glial cells (glia)
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
frontal lobe
involved in speaking and muscle movement and in making plans and judgement
parietal lobe
receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobe
visual
temporal lobe
auditory
motor cortex
voluntary movement
sensory cortex
registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that’s involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Broca’s area
controls language expression - directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s area
controls language reception - language comprehension and expression
aphasia
impairment of language, usually cased by left hemisphere damage to either Broca’s area of Wernicke’s area
plasticity
the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
visual perception track
enables us “to create the mental furniture that allows us to think about the world” - to recognize things and to plan future actions
visual action track
guides our moment-to-moment actions