China & Japan: Key Terms

Mandate of Heaven

The belief that Chinese emperors had divine approval to rule, and their legitimacy depended on maintaining order and prosperity.

Tributary System

A diplomatic and trade arrangement in which weaker states acknowledged the supremacy of a dominant empire, such as China, by offering tribute.

Qing (Manchu) Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty of China (1644-1912), founded by the Manchus, known for its expansion and eventual struggles against Western imperialism.

Opium Wars

A series of conflicts (1839-1842, 1856-1860) between China and Britain (later joined by France) over British trade of opium in China, resulting in Chinese defeats and unequal treaties.

Treaty of Nanjing

The treaty that ended the First Opium War (1842), forcing China to open ports to British trade, cede Hong Kong to Britain, and grant extraterritorial rights to foreigners.

Extraterritoriality

A legal principle allowing foreigners to be tried under their own country’s laws rather than those of the country they are residing in, imposed on China in the 19th century.

Indemnity

A financial penalty imposed on a defeated nation as compensation for war damages, often in the form of money or trade concessions.

Treaty of Tianjin

A treaty (1858) that further opened China to Western influence, allowing foreign legations in Beijing and granting more commercial privileges to European powers.

Taiping Rebellion

A massive peasant-led rebellion (1850-1864) led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ and sought to overthrow the Qing Dynasty.

Hong Xiuquan

The leader of the Taiping Rebellion who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus and aimed to establish a "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace."

Self-Strengthening Reforms

A 19th-century movement in China aimed at modernizing military and industrial sectors while maintaining traditional Confucian values.

Spheres of Influence

Areas in China where foreign powers had exclusive trade rights and exerted significant political and economic control.

Sino-Japanese War

A war between China and Japan (1894-1895) over influence in Korea, leading to Japan's decisive victory and the Treaty of Shimonoseki.

100 Days of Reform

A short-lived reform movement (1898) led by Emperor Guangxu, seeking to modernize China’s political, economic, and educational institutions before being crushed by conservative forces.

Open Door Policy

A U.S.-proposed policy (1899) to keep China open to trade with all nations equally, preventing any single country from monopolizing commerce.

Boxer Rebellion

An anti-foreigner uprising (1899-1901) in China led by the "Boxers," aiming to expel Western and Japanese influence but ultimately suppressed by foreign powers.

Sun Yat-sen

A Chinese revolutionary who founded the Revive China Society and later helped overthrow the Qing Dynasty, becoming the first president of the Republic of China.

Revive China society

A revolutionary organization founded by Sun Yat-sen that aimed to end Qing rule and modernize China.

Three People’s Principles

Sun Yat-sen’s political philosophy advocating nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood as the foundation for modern China.

Revolution of 1911

The uprising that led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.

Shogun

The military ruler of Japan who held actual power while the emperor was a figurehead, particularly during the feudal period.

Daimyo

Powerful feudal lords in Japan who controlled vast territories and maintained private armies of samurai.

Samurai

A hereditary warrior class in Japan who served feudal lords and followed the strict code of Bushido.

Tokugawa Shogunate

The ruling military government of Japan (1603-1868) that maintained strict social hierarchy and isolationist policies under the leadership of a shogun.

Matthew Perry

A U.S. naval officer who forced Japan to open its ports to Western trade in 1853-1854 through military intimidation.

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use of naval military threats to force a weaker nation into agreements, as seen in the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry.

Treaty of Kanagawa

A treaty signed in 1854 between Japan and the United States, opening two Japanese ports to American trade and marking the end of Japan’s isolationist policies.

Sat-Cho Alliance

A powerful alliance of two Japanese domains that played a critical role in overthrowing the Tokugawa Shogunate and initiating the Meiji Restoration.

Meiji Restoration

A political and economic transformation (1868) that restored imperial rule in Japan and led to rapid modernization and industrialization.

Meiji Constitution

The 1889 constitution of Japan, modeled after Western systems, which established a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system.

Zaibatsu

Large, family-controlled industrial and financial conglomerates in Japan that dominated the economy during and after the Meiji period.

Iwakura Mission

A diplomatic journey (1871-1873) where Japanese officials traveled to Western countries to study their political, military, and economic institutions.

Russo-Japanese War

A war between Russia and Japan (1904-1905) over territorial disputes in Manchuria and Korea, marking Japan’s emergence as a major world power.

Treaty of Portsmouth

A treaty brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt that ended the Russo-Japanese War, granting Japan territorial gains while preserving a balance of power.