Lesson 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives on the Self

Core Foundations: Culture and Society

There is a common saying in the social sciences—especially in sociology and anthropology—that human beings are, by nature, social beings. That is, each of us does not exist in a vacuum. We interact with people and even the most introvert of us would have to relate and communicate with others.

"We are born into a social environment; we fully develop into human beings in a social environment; and we live our lives in a social environment. What we think, how we feel, and what we say and do, all are shaped by our interactions with other people." — Hughes and Kroehler

Society: Refers to a group of people who live together in a specific area, share a common culture, and interact with each other, forming a complex web of social relationships and institutions.

Culture: A group of people's way of life which includes behaviors, values, beliefs, and symbols that they accept, usually unconsciously. Culture is socially transmitted through communication and imitation from generation to generation.

Material Culture: Includes clothes, tools, weapons, architectural designs, religious implements, among others

Nonmaterial Culture: Includes belief systems, values, norms or expected behaviors, as well as shared language and symbols.

Values vs. Norms

Values: Ideal behaviors or principles that set the standard for what is acceptable and admirable from a person who is part of a society. They help distinguish right from wrong and inform how one can conduct life in a meaningful way.

Norms: Rules on what to do or what not to do in a certain situation. Specific to a particular culture or society, they are essentially action-guiding rules specifying concretely the things that must be done or omitted.

Examples:

Kissing the hand of an elder: The norm is pagmamano (the behavior itself); the value demonstrated is respect (pagkamagalang).

Witnessing an accident: The norm states that we cannot laugh at the person and prescribes giving help; the values promoted are being considerate and helpful.

Socialization, Status, and Roles

As a person grows into a society, he imbibes the culture of that society through the processes of socialization.

Socialization (or Enculturation in Anthropology): A lifelong process of learning, teaching, internalizing, and living the culture of a society.

Status: One's position or title in a society or a particular group (e.g., first child, teenager, student, president of an organization).

Ascribed Status: Inherited or given at birth (e.g., being a prince).

Achieved Status: Personally acquired for achieving something (e.g., elected as class president).

Roles: Expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes that accompany each status or title.

Society and culture coexist and are interdependent with each other. Society is composed of people and culture is composed of ideas, behavior, and material possessions.

Eight Key Social Institutions

Social institutions are sets of ideas, norms, practices, or mechanisms organized and focused on addressing the needs of the community.

Kinship / Family: The most basic social institution of a society. It can be based on blood relations (consanguineal), marriage (affinal), or social relationships (non-biological/legal individuals considered part of the family).

Economics / Market: Aims to regulate the flow of resources and services. It ensures everyone gets what they need (especially those needing help) and keeps product prices fair so businesses can compete equally.

Politics / Government: Composed of various organizations ensuring peace and order by legitimizing the use of power. In the Philippines, it is divided into three equal branches with check-and-balance powers:

Executive: Headed by the President; in charge of enforcing the law.

Legislative: Composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate; in charge of creating, amending, or repealing laws.

Judiciary: Led by the Supreme Court; provides proper interpretation of laws and ensures the Constitution and human rights are upheld.

Education / School: Goals include:

Developing personality, critical thinking skills, and overall potential.

Producing people who can live harmoniously in the social environment.

Equipping individuals with knowledge and skills to be productive members of society.

Transmitting past knowledge and culture to the next generation.

Bringing about changes to other social institutions.

Religion / Church: An organized set of practices, symbols, and artifacts regarding the belief in the supernatural.

Provides an explanation of the unexplainable, defines life's meaning/purpose, and brings continuity of relationships after death.

Teaches and reinforces values, norms, and morals alongside family and school.

Note: A supernatural being is more powerful than any creature in the natural world. Clifford Geertz noted that individuals can still choose what values, norms, and morals to adapt, reject, or change.

Mass Media / Social Media:

Mass Media refers to technological devices reaching large audiences (newspapers, TV, radio, internet). Social Media is computer-based technology allowing users to create/distribute information and participate in social networking.

Drives social awareness/change, but can also spread misinformation and reinforce harmful stereotypes.

Affects self-concept development and self-perception as users adopt presented ideals.

Drives of Social Media Habits:

Habit formation and reinforcement (checking notifications for likes/comments).

Activation of the brain's reward system (dopamine release).

Enhancement of self-esteem through positive social feedback.

Opportunities for identity expression.

Social accessibility for individuals experiencing social anxiety.

Health Services: A structured system of norms, rules, and organizations dedicated to maintaining and improving population health (providers, hospitals, clinics, public health agencies, policies). Shapes experiences of health and illness, which sociologists study as socially constructed concepts rather than purely biological ones.

Recreation: An organized system of social relationships for satisfying human desires for entertainment, amusement, and play. Chosen freely during leisure (free time away from responsibilities) to participate in recreation and sports (organized physical activity).

Theoretical Approaches to the Self

Sociological View: The self is not fixed; it is formed through interactions with others and the social environment. We learn who we are by imagining how others see us and internalizing societal values, roles, and behaviors.

Anthropological View: Emphasizes how culture influences self and identity. Self is deeply rooted in cultural practices, beliefs, values, language, rituals, and traditions.

1. George Herbert Mead — Symbolic Interactionism

"Social psychology is especially interested in the effect which the social group has in the determination of the experience and conduct of the individual member."

Mead explained how the mind and self emerge from social interaction (there is no self without a prior social group).

Theory of Symbolic Interactionism:

Social Construction of the Self: The self is formed through interaction with external influences (family, culture, media, institutions).

Identity Requires Social Recognition: Individuals rely on affirmation from others to validate self-perception.

Values and Priorities Are Based on Society: Collective norms set the framework for what is deemed worthy, desirable, or meaningful.

2. Ruth Fulton Benedict & 3. Margaret Mead — Cultural Determinism

Ruth Benedict: Key figure in the Culture and Personality School of Thought. Argued that each culture selects a limited number of personality traits to emphasize, creating distinct cultural patterns. Showed that gender roles and personal traits stem from cultural expectations rather than biological traits.

Margaret Mead: Prominent cultural anthropologist who wrote extensively for popular audiences and conducted ethnographic research.

Theory of Cultural Determinism:

Belief that a person's culture significantly shapes their behavior, values, and beliefs—having a greater influence than inherent biological or personal characteristics.

Suggests there is no single "universal or right way" of being human; the right way is defined by one's culture (Cultural Relativism).

3. Clifford James Geertz — Interpretive Anthropology

Proponent of symbolic and interpretive anthropology.

Culture is shaped by how people see and understand things around them—not by fixed rules or structures.

Symbols (flags, rituals, sayings) help people interpret their world and guide how they live and relate to others.

4. Charles Horton Cooley — Looking-Glass Self Theory

Formulated in Human Nature and the Social Order (1902).