Temperament

Who proposed four temperaments (humors) in ancient history?

Hippocrates (460–370 BC).

What were Hippocrates' four temperaments?

Sanguine, Choleric, Melancholic, and Phlegmatic.

What is temperament?

Affective biases in the way infants respond to the environment.

How is temperament related to personality?

Early individual differences are related to later personality, but temperament and personality are not identical.

What are four characteristics of temperament?

Emotional in nature, present early in infancy, relatively stable across development, and largely due to biological factors.

What is Jerome Kagan's tapestry metaphor?

Temperament is the threads, and personality is the tapestry.

How can temperament be assessed?

Parent questionnaires/observations, teacher questionnaires, and experimenter observations.

What was the New York Longitudinal Study?

A classic study of infant temperament conducted by Thomas, Chess, and Birch in the 1950s.

How did researchers collect information in the New York Longitudinal Study?

By interviewing parents.

What type of information did researchers collect from parents?

Detailed descriptions of children's behavior rather than judgments about behavior.

What did the New York Longitudinal Study identify?

Various scales that measure different aspects of temperament.

What are the 9 dimensions of temperament?

Activity level, rhythmicity, distractibility, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, attention span/persistence, intensity, responsiveness, and quality of mood.

What are the three temperament styles?

Difficult, easy, and slow-to-warm-up.

What percentage of infants did not fit neatly into one temperament category?

35%.

What were those 35% of infants classified as?

Mixtures of categories.

What percentage of infants were classified as difficult?

10%.

What characterizes difficult infants?

Irregular biological functions, negative responses to new experiences, difficulty adapting to change, intense or negative moods, feeding and sleeping problems, and difficulty adjusting to new routines, people, or situations.

What percentage of infants were classified as easy?

40%.

What characterizes easy infants?

Regular behavior, positive responses to new stimuli, high adaptability, and a positive mood.

How do easy infants typically behave?

They develop regular sleep and feeding schedules, adapt easily to new experiences, respond positively to strangers, and do not become frustrated easily.

What percentage of infants were classified as slow-to-warm-up?

15%.

What characterizes slow-to-warm-up infants?

Mild negative responses to new stimuli and slow adaptability even after repeated contact.

How do slow-to-warm-up infants react to new situations?

At first they act like difficult children, but gradually show quiet and positive interest.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in activity level?

Easy infants have low activity levels; difficult infants have high activity levels.

Give examples of activity level differences between easy and difficult infants.

Easy infants bathe easily and sit calmly; difficult infants are fussy when bathing and fidgety.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in distractibility?

Easy infants have low distractibility; difficult infants have high distractibility.

Give examples of distractibility differences between easy and difficult infants.

Easy infants can pay attention for long periods; difficult infants are easily distracted and lose interest quickly.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in intensity?

Easy infants have low intensity; difficult infants have high intensity.

Give examples of intensity differences between easy and difficult infants.

Easy infants are quiet and calm; difficult infants cry and scream when excited.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in regularity?

Easy infants are regular; difficult infants are irregular.

Give examples of regularity differences between easy and difficult infants.

Easy infants have regular naps, feedings, and bowel movements; difficult infants do not.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in sensory threshold?

Easy infants have a high sensory threshold; difficult infants have a low sensory threshold.

Give examples of sensory-threshold differences between easy and difficult infants.

Easy infants are not very sensitive to sound, taste, or light changes; difficult infants are very sensitive.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in approach/withdrawal?

Easy infants approach; difficult infants withdraw.

Give examples of approach/withdrawal differences.

Easy infants approach strangers with interest; difficult infants withdraw from strangers.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in adaptability?

Easy infants adapt well; difficult infants adapt poorly.

Give examples of adaptability differences.

Easy infants switch activities without distress; difficult infants are highly sensitive to environmental changes.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in persistence?

Easy infants have low persistence; difficult infants have high persistence.

Give examples of persistence differences.

Easy infants are willing to give up; difficult infants are stubborn.

How do easy and difficult infants differ in mood?

Easy infants have positive moods; difficult infants have negative moods.

Give examples of mood differences.

Easy infants smile and interact positively; difficult infants interact negatively and smile less.

According to the New York Longitudinal Study, are temperament characteristics stable over time?

Yes, they are relatively stable.

What did the study find about temperament in the first and second years of life?

Temperament tendencies in the first year were consistent with temperament during toddlerhood.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show low activity?

Did not move much during sleep.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show regularity?

Regular feeding schedule and bowel movements.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show approach behavior?

Smiled and licked a washcloth in the bath and liked the bottle.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show adaptability?

Enjoyed bathing.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show low intensity?

Did not cry with a wet diaper and only whimpered when hungry.

At 2 months, how did the easy infant show a positive mood?

Smacked lips when tasting food and smiled at parents often.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show low activity?

Enjoyed quiet puzzle play.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show regularity?

Ate a large lunch daily and had a bedtime snack.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show approach behavior?

Slept well the first time staying overnight with grandma.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show adaptability?

Obeyed quickly.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show low intensity?

Looked surprised when hit but did not hit back.

At 2 years, how did the easy child show a positive mood?

Played with a sibling, laughed, and smiled after success.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show high activity?

Moved often during sleep and was fussy during diaper changes.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show irregularity?

Woke up at different times each morning.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show withdrawal?

Rejected cereal and cried around strangers.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show poor adaptability?

Was startled by noises and resisted diapering.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show high intensity?

Cried with a wet diaper and strongly rejected food when full.

At 2 months, how did the difficult infant show a negative mood?

Fussed after nursing and cried when the carriage was rocked.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show high activity?

Climbed furniture and got out of bed during bedtime.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show irregularity?

Naptime changed often.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show withdrawal?

Avoided new children and would not touch water at the beach.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show poor adaptability?

Cried during haircuts and frequently disobeyed.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show high intensity?

Yelled when excited and cried loudly when toys were taken away.

At 2 years, how did the difficult child show a negative mood?

Cried during haircuts and when the mother left.

What percentage of difficult infants later showed behavior problems?

70%.

What percentage of easy infants later showed behavior problems?

18%.

Do all temperament traits show the same stability?

No.

Which temperament trait was less stable?

Activity level.

Which temperament trait was more stable?

Positive mood.

According to Thomas, Chess, and Birch, what shapes personality?

A constant interplay between temperament and environment.

Why might parenting an easy infant be easier?

Little encouragement is needed.

What should parents of difficult infants do?

Be aware of temperament and use sensitivity, patience, and consistency.

What should parents of slow-to-warm-up infants do?

Allow adaptation at the child's pace and encourage them in new situations.

What are two criticisms of the New York Longitudinal Study?

It relied on parent reports and many children did not fit neatly into one category.

What did Jerome Kagan use to measure temperament?

Responses to novelty in experimental situations.

At what age did Kagan first measure temperament?

4 months.

What characterizes high-reactive infants?

Crying, vigorous arm and leg movements, and arching of the back.

What percentage of infants were high-reactive?

20%.

What characterizes low-reactive infants?

Minimal motor activity and minimal distress.

What percentage of infants were low-reactive?

40%.

What did Kagan find about high-reactive infants?

They were more likely to become fearful toddlers.

What happened to many children classified as high-reactive or low-reactive?

About 50% became more intermediate in temperament.

What happened to the other 50%?

They remained inhibited or uninhibited into adolescence and adulthood.

What conclusion did Kagan draw about infant reactivity to novelty?

It has some predictive value.

What brain finding was associated with inhibited temperament?

Greater amygdala response to novelty in adulthood.

What are the main conclusions about temperament?

Infants differ in temperament, high-reactive infants are more likely to become inhibited, temperament is strongly influenced by biology but does not determine personality, and temperament is better viewed as a susceptibility