Civil War

America

11 states in the confederacy by may 1861

• SC

• Mississippi

• Florida

• Alabama

• Georgia

• Louisiana

• texas

• Virginia

• Arkansas

• Tennessee

• NC

Davis character (good)

• came to presidency w/ useful military and administrative experience

• secretary of war 1853-7

• never underestimated N

• Promoted conscription act in April 1862, imposed martial law in areas threatened by invasion, supported impressment of supplies and urged high taxes on cotton and slaves.

• forced himself to become a more public figure → tours of the south

Davis character (bad)

• High turnover in cabinet

• @ time when conf needed revolutionary inspiration, he was too conservative

• failed to gain European recognition for confederacy, Europe found other sources for cotton.

• didnt implement effective taxation to fund war.

• poor personal choices (Bragg, removed Johnston at the wrong times)

Lincoln character (good)

• effective communicator (eg Gettysburg address)

• Time spent on patronage/party organisation = loyalty

• spoke to radical and conservative wings of party, willing to compromise and improvise.

• Calling of blockade and troops then the war started, and ordered $2 mill military spending without congressional approval.

• emancipation proclamation in 1863 stopped BR/FR recognising confederacy (anti-slavery)

• prevented maryland/kentucky from seceding.

• good military appointments (grant and Sherman)

Lincoln character (bad)

• underestimated strength of S and length of war

• preoccupied w/ politics

• 1862 suspended writ of habeas corpus, over 40,000 subject to arbitrary arrest.

• military appointments were uninspiring.

Lincolns cabinet

• stable

• rare meetings, secretaries usually saw Lincoln individually

• Secretary of State = William seward → vital in Europe not recognising confederacy.

• Secretary of the treasury - Salmon Chase

• 1st secretary of war Simon Cameron was replaced by Edward Stanton in 1862 (severe critic of Lincoln but became one of his closest advisors)

• Gideon Welles (secretary of the navy) crucial to the anaconda plan

‘team of rivals’

Confederacy cabinet

HIGH turnover

• first Secretary of State had resigned by July 1861

• 4 different secretaries of war

• Some loyalty (Judah Benjamin had three different roles, willing to take blame to shelter Davis)

• Davis often ignored advice of cabinet

• confederacy’s emphasis on state rights clashed with necessary centralisation during war.

Union congress

• depleted by loss of Southern members, controlled by republicans

• therefore usually cooperated w/ Lincoln

• radical republicans often blamed Lincoln for failing to move up against slavery quicker. BUT they were not a disciplined group and didnt always disagree with Lincoln.

• When he wanted their support, he got it.

Confederate congress

• provisional one until Feb 1862

• State sovereignty was emphasised, complicating central authority.

• Passed the first American national conscription law in April 1862.

• Davis had no party organisation to mobilise support/formulate legislative policy.

• reluctant with taxes, leading to huge inflation and food shortages.

• As situation deteriorated, opposition grew. IN 1863 congressional elections, 40% were new/opposed to Davis, leading to major rift between Davis and congress.

Individual confederate states

all governors committed to the confederacy.

Some state leaders not keen to concede too much power to Richmond, appealing to their states’ rights.

• E.g gov. Brown in Georgia opposed conscription and exempted thousands of Georgians from the draft by setting up fake militias.

• BUT most cooperated. They initiated most of the necessary legislation @ state level, impressing slaves and declaring martial law.

Internal opposition within the confederacy

• East Tennessee and West Virginia seceded from confederacy, a considerable drain on manpower. Some 60,000 from these areas and a further 30,000 from other slave states joined the union army.

• Conscription act of 1862 meant those in the middle had to side with the union or face military service.

• Class conflict → law that southerners were exempt from fighting if they managed a plantation with over 20 slaves →' ‘rich mans war, poor mans fight’

• BUT few actually shirked military duty.

• Martial law of 1862 suspended writ of habeas corpus, some opposition (Brown in Georgia)

• Riots in Richmond 1863 due to food shortages

• Desertion rates grew massively after 1862 (around 100,000 in total)

Voluntary associations in the confederacy

Women's groups→ Sewed uniforms, made bandages, flags etc. Supported hospitals.

Planters often organised and outfitted regiments with their own money.

Volunteer militias.

Many states reliant on local communities to supply troops with necessities.

Internal opposition within the union: copperheads

• the copperheads: Northern democrats who opposed Lincoln and wanted peace, arguing Lincoln was a tyrant. Republicans claimed they belonged to pro-south secret societies. (used charges of treason to discredit them)

• Democrats had some success in 1862 midterms due to northern racism and war weariness.

• Most famous = clement vallandigham.

• Democrat dissent reached its height in early 1863 due to Union military failures.

• Vallandigham denounced the war and called on soldiers to desert. he was arrested in the middle of the night and tried by a military tribunal, and sentenced to imprisonment for the war.

• Protests from democrats. People outraged a civilian was tried in a military court. Lincoln didnt want to make him a martyr, he was banished to the confederacy.

Internal opposition within the union

• Opposition to the draft

• 1st conscription act in 1863. But if you paid $300 you were exempted. class tensions

• NYC draft riots, July 1863. Mob of Irish workers attacked recruiting station, released fury on black people. Lincoln moved quickly, sending 20,000 troops to restore order. over 120 died.

• strikes in Chicago and Philadelphia due to inflation and high taxes.

Confederacy finances

• few gold reserves, union made it hard to sell cotton/raise money from tariffs

• 1863 taxes were unpopular, failed to bring sufficient revenue

• States often borrowed money/printed it to pay dues, worsening inflation

• 1863 impressment act allowed the seizure of goods to support armies at the front line.

• Taxation-in-kind act of 1863 allowed gov to collect 10% of produce from all farmers, helping to supply armies.

• only 8% of income from taxes.

• Feb 1861, congress allowed treasury secretary (memminger) to raise $15mill in bonds and stock certificates, Initially many buyers but this stopped after 1863 (1/3 of confederate income)

• Memminger had to print vast amounts of treasury paper money ($1.5 bill)(HUGE INFLATION)

• SHOULD HAVE CENTRALISED FINANCES.

• By 1864, confederate dollar was less worth than 2 cents in gold.

• Richmond bread riot 1863!

Union finances

1861 → union had an est. treasury, gold reserves and assured source of revenue from taxes.

• BUT northern structures not ready for war. Over winter 1861-2 the northern banking system was near collapse.

• Chase kept treasury afloat by raising loans and issuing bonds in which ordinary citizens as well as bankers were encouraged to invest. 1 million N ended up owning shares in the national debt.

• 2/3 of Union revenue raised by loans and bonds, 1/5 by taxes.

• 1st income tax in US history enacted in 1861.

• Internal revenue act 1862 → taxed everything (10x income tax revenue)

• 1862 legal tender act. Authorised issuing of $150 million in paper currency not redeemable in gold/silver (GREENBACKS)(turned into $431 mill). Restored investors confidence, sale of $500mill new bonds.

• Chase attempted to reform banking system (63 and 64 national banking acts). Pumped paper money into the economy but a tax of 10% on state bank notes ensure union not awash with/ paper money. Inflation overall, only 80% (conf = 5000%)

Conf morale

• high in 1st 2 years, helped by good harvest in 1861 and military success.

• Domestic problems became insurmountable, some areas devastated by union troops.

• BUT 90% of free men were in military service.

• Wives of planters had to manage plantations and control restless slaves. In towns, women look after jobs done by men

• Massive inflation and taxes ruined morale.

Northern society/morale

• faced less adversity

• Many peoples lives continued as normal

• BUT regiments were often made up of men from a single town, bad if regiment suffered high casualties!

• More job opportunities for women in teaching/industry/gov. BUT still not given the vote. returned to old roles after war.

• Some working men saw their earnings drop as prices rose. Labour unrest, small strikes.

• BUT many working class families benefitted from bounties/wages paid to soldiers.

• RACIAL TENSIONS→ some resented fighting war to free slaves, race riots

• Reduction in immigrants from 60→ 61/2 (92,000 from 154,000)

• BUT 1865 → nearly 250,000

• ethnic rivalry remained strong after 1865.

CONF ECONOMY

• 1865 → prices 5×1861

• Memminger resigned in 1864

• Shortages of basic commodities

• ‘confederate socialism’ failed.

• Richmond gov played greater role in finances than DC

• Ordinance Bureau played crucial role. had enough war supplies to keep armies supplied.

• Draft exemptions to railway workers.

• 1863 → law required all blockade runners to carry at least 1/3 of cargo cotton out and war supplies in (should have happened earlier)

• Blockade running extremely successful, 100s of ships involved, 75% chance of success. Imported 60% of small arms.

• State Govs regulated distribution of scarce goods. Efforts to ensure farmers switched from cotton to food production (reduction from 4 million bales in 1861 to 300,000 in 1864)

Limits to conf. economy

• could have gained foreign recognition through cotton embargo. If it had been exported in 1861 money could have been used for war supplies.

• could have done more with blockade runners sooner.

• More slaves could have been impressed.

• Economy near collapse by 1865, sources of raw materials lost as Union took more of the south. Breakdown in railway system!!!

Union economy

• after 1861, republicans able to pass economic legislation previously held up by democrat opposition.

• 1862 homestead act

• higher tariffs gave gov extra revenue and protected industry from foreign competition.

• Generous railway subsidies melted out.

• Little assertion of federal power in economy.

• Able to ensure union armies equipped. War actually stimulated economic growth.

• shortage of labour = new machinery

• Farmers benefitted, growing demand from abroad and armies.

• exports of wheat, corn, pork and beef doubled.

• Growth in production due to land being brought under cultivation → over.1 million hectares between 62-64.

Union economic problems

• some industries suffers (New England cotton mills)

• Labour force → army.

• Reduced immigration

• Reduction in population by 5.6%

• Economic growth in 1860 much slower than in any other decade.

• Shift to mass production well underway before war?

• Lincolns banking system almost collapsed

Confederate efforst to get Britain involved

• 1861 → cotton embargo introduced to bankrupt cotton factories in GB and FR to force them to help. FAILED → factories full of cotton bought 59-60

• Conf sent agents across Atlantic to est. contacts with sympathetic MPs, set up newspaper the index to promote rebel case.

• Purchasing agents bought many BR armaments.

what more could they have done?

Why did BR remain neutral?

in may 1861 BR formally declared neutrality and didnt recognise confederacy as sovereign state, BUT recognised its belligerent status so had the right to contract loans an purchase arms in neutral nations.

Neutrality meant it could:

• supply arms and war supplies to both sides

• keep Canada

• keep value markets

• not appear to help slavery

Trent Affair

nov 1861 → James Mason and John Slidell (confederate commissioners) left Cuba for Europe in the Trent (British steamer).

Soon after leaving they were stopped by Captain Wilkes commanding USS San Jacinto. Wilkes forceably removed Mason and Slidell from the ship.

Angered BR. Lord Russel demanded they were released and US make public apology. British fleet prepared for action and soldiers were sent to Canada. Stopped exporting essential war materials to the Union

SERIOUS DILEMMA FOR LINCOLN. Danger of war but Wilkes was a national hero. Union would be outraged if he surrendered.

Huge diplomatic win from Lincoln → US gov didnt apologise but admitted he had committed an illegal act → freed Mason and Slidell.

British mediation

Autumn 1862, after triumph @ 2nd manassas, French Emperor (Napoleon III) proposed BR and FR attempt to mediate conflict. Seriously considered by the BR.

BUT failure of Lee’s Maryland invasion convinced Palmerston it would be unwise to intervene.

Commerce raiders

• BR shipbuilders built vessels for a variety of conf. purposes. Majority were employed as blockade runners

• Conf purchased commerce raiders (warships that attacked union merchant ships) which caused considerable damage → The Alabama took down 64 union ships before being sunk.

• The north lost some 260 ships. This scarcely crippled trade but was a nuisance and drove Union shipping insurance through the roof

Laird Rams

• Summer 1863, Lincolns gov aware the laird brothers shipbuilders were building 2 ironclad ships for the conf. these would be strongest ships afloat (could smash enemies mill)

• Charles Adams (US minister to the UK) threatened war against BR if the boats were sold to the conf. The BR gov eventually bought the rams itself

• crisis fizzled out

4 slave states → union success

• Delaware wouldnt secede (2% population were slaves economic ties)

• April 1861, Union soldiers passed through Baltimore on way to DC and were attacked by pro-conf townspeople. 16 killed (1st fatalities of war). Lincoln and pro-Union Maryland governor sent troops, suspended HC. Saved Maryland for union.

• Kentucky deeply divided, Lincoln pretended to accept neutrality, supplied arms to unionists in state. Sept 1861, conf forces occupied Columbus, union forces ordered into Kentucky and soon occupied most of the state.

• 1861 → likely that Missouri would join conf. BUT considerable union support from state’s German population. Unionists kept control of most of Missouri.

Conf strengths

• size - 2million km², difficult to blockade/occupy.

• Conf forces were on defence not offence.

• S hoped N might question high losses.

• Main place of war between DC and Richmond had series of rivers as barriers.

• Slaves could be left to work on home front, more white manpower

• fighting for home - fighting harder?

• Morale high in 1861, S churches assured they had god on side.

• S - better soldiers pre-war? more emphasis on martial virtues, most USA military colleges were in slave states, S usually dominated senior posts in US army, farmers already knew how to ride and shoot.

• thousands from Maryland missouri and Kentucky fought for the south

• Cotton → can buy military supplies from Europe.

Union strengths

• 22 million in N, 9 million in S

• 4 slave states loyal to union (would have added 80% to conf.s industrial capacity)

• Stronger pool of military experience, most of US army remained loyal

• Huge naval supremacy

• 1860 → N had 6x factories than the S, 10x industrial productive capacity, 2x miles of railway.

• N produced more agriculturally

Conf weaknesses

• only 9 million in the south

• 4 slave states loyal to north

• not all conf committed to the cause, pockets of unionism existed.

• Conf suffered major setback when W Virginia seceded.

Key stats on Union vs Conf

N:S

total population: 2.5:1

free male pop 1860: 4.4:1

• in military service 1864: 44% vs 90%

• wealth produced: 3:1

• railroad mileage: 2.4:1

• Naval ships tonnage: 25:1

• firearms production: 32:1

• wheat production: 4.2:1

• cotton: 1:24

civil war fought by armed mobs?

• neither side had recognisable high command structure

• Lincoln and Davis appointed chief officers, political criteria sometimes > military

• Only a few junior officers had any military qualifications, many appointed by men under command or state governors due to social standing

• most ordinary soldiers were unused to military discipline.

• Widespread insubordination

How did both sides raise mass armies

• accepted locally and privately raised volunteer units. By 1862, flood of recruits had become a trickle

• March → Davis introcuded conscription, every white male between 18-35.

• North → large sums of money offered to those who enlisted. Militia law July 1862 → Lincoln could call state militias into service. March 1863 → union introduced conscription of all able bodied men from 20-45

• around 1/10 fighters in civil war were conscripted but conscripts were treated with contempt → encouraged men to volunteer.

• BY 1865 → 900,000 men had fought for conf, 2.1 million enlisted by Union.

Impact of the rifle musket on the war

• before: smoothbore musket, range of less than 100m

• 1861 → replaced by rifle musket. could be fired as quickly s the smoothbore but accurate up to 600m

• 1861-2: union ordinance chief Ripley opposed introduction of repeating rifles → soldiers might waste ammunition. 1864-5 repeating rifles have union important advantage.

should have happened sooner?

improved communication → impact strategy and tactics

• both sides made use of railways to move masses of men and supplies.

• Conf found it hard to maintain its railway system and thus maximise lines of communication

• Mississippi and tributaries → steamboats played a vital role.

• Telegraph enabled commanders to communicate direction with units on widely separated fronts, thus ensuring coordinated movement.

Naval War?

April 1861 → Union had a fleet of 90 ships but few ready for action. Only 8800 men int he navy. BUT large merchant marine

Conf had no navy at all

• BY Dec 61: Union had over 260 warships on duty and 100 more under construction.

• Blockading of South was crucial (conf buying weapons and selling cotton)

• Blockade grew as months went by, union used naval supremacy to transport troops and strike coastal targets.

• April 1862 → new orleans, conf largest town captured by Admiral Farragut.

• 8th march 1862 → conf ironclad Virginia sank 2 blockading ships, but by march union had its own ironclad the monitor

• 9th march → 1st ironclad encounter, a draw but the Virginia so damaged it was not used much more.

• Union able to mass produce ironclads.

‘inland sea’

gunboats played crucial role in helping union troops capture a number of key confederate fortresses. By august 1862, union forces controlled all of the Mississippi apart from 250km stretch from Vicksburg to Port Hudson.