Dev psy exam 3

Social development theories

account for emotion, personality, attachment, self, peer relationships, morality, and gender, explain how dev is influenced by social partners, examine how humans affect each other

Psychoanalytic theories

Freud, biggest impact on social and personality development, early experiences REALLY matter, behavior motivated by need to satisfy basic biological drives (if needs not met, leads to fixation), emphasized role of the unconscious

Id

earliest personality structure, based in biological drives, unconscious, goal is to seek pleasure

Ego

emerges in the first year, is rational, logical, problem solver

Superego

develops during age 3-5, personality based on parent’s attributes, beliefs, standards (internalization); the moral conscience

Oral (first year)

primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity. Mother established as the strongest love-object

Anal (1-3 years)

Primary source of pleasure comes from defecation

Phallic (3-6 years)

primary source of pleasure in the genitalia

Latency (6-12 years)

Sexual energy channeled into socially acceptable activities

Genital (12+ years)

Sexual maturation complete and sexual intercourse becomes a major goal

Freud’s Healthy development

Culminates in ability to invest in and derive pleasure from love and work

Freud’s compromises to healthy development

fixation may occur if fundamental needs are not met during a stage, attempts to satisfy need and resolve associated conflicts may occur throughout life

Psychoanalytic theories - Erikson

life span developmental theory, accepted Freud, but expanded to include social factors, stages characterized by crisis that must be resolved (X vs Y)

Trust vs Mistrust (1st year)

developing trust in other people is the crucial issue

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1-3.5 years)

the challenge is to achieve a strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to increased social demands

Initiative vs Guilt (4-6 years)

resolved when the child develops high standards and the initiative to meet them without being crushed by worry about not being able to measure up

Industry vs Inferiority (6-puberty)

the child must master cognitive and social skills, learn to work industriously, and play well with others

Identity vs Role confusion (adolescence- early adulthood)

Adolescents must resolve the question of who they really are or live in confusion about what roles they should play as adults

contemporary theorists

children play a role in their own development

Watson’s behaviorism

believed development determined by social environment, learning through conditioning, famous experiment with “Little Albert”

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

everything we do in life is an operant response, importance of attention as a powerful reinforcer

Intermittent reinforcement

inconsistent response to the behavior of another person - hard to extinguish (Skinner)

Behavior modification

therapy uses reinforcement to change contingencies and encourage adaptive behaviors (Skinner)

Bandura’s social learning theory

Believed learning is based on observation of the behavior of other people

vicarious reinforcement

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment (bandura)

reciprocal determinism

Child-environment influences operate in both directions (bandura)

Self-socialization

active process during development whereby children’s cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs, through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on

Dweck’s theory- self-attributions and Achievement Motivation

What motivates children’s achievement? How do children view success and failure?

Learning goals

Seeking to improve competence and master new material (dweck)

performance goals

seeking to receive positive assessments or avoid negative assessments (dweck)

Entity/ helpless orientation

attribute success/ failure to stable aspects of self (dweck)

incremental/ mastery orientation

attribute success/ failure to amount of effort (dweck)

Entity theory of intelligence

belief that level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable (dweck)

incremental theory of intelligence

belief that intelligence can increase as a function of experience (dweck)

Feedback matters

praising for working hard supports an incremental theory and a mastery-oriented motivational pattern, praise focused on enduring traits can lead to an entity theory and a helpless orientation

Microsystem

immediate, bidirectional environment that is directly experienced (family, peers, schools, neighborhood) (bronfenbrenner)

Mesosystem

connections among various microsystems (parents interacting with teachers) (bronfenbrenner)

Exosystem

environmental settings that the person does not experience directly but have indirect impacts (parents’ workplaces, mass media) (bronfenbrenner)

Macrosystem

the larger cultural context within which the other systems are embedded (cultural groups, social class, laws) (bronfenbrenner)

Chronosystem

changes over time (changes in age, values) (bronfenbrenner)

ecological theories

individual is placed in a broad context by these theories, emphasize genetic tendencies, evolution, bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model has made a significant contribution

Attachment

emotional bond with a specific person that endures across space and time, came from observation (1930s and 40s) that individuals who grew up in orphanages were not adapting well

Attachment theory

developed by John bowlby and expanded upon by Mary Ainsworth, children biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers to increase chances of survival

Secure base

child sense of security that makes environmental exploration possible

Preattachment phase (birth - 6 weeks)

innate signals bring others to them and this brings comfort (bowlby)

attachment in the making (6 weeks - 6-8 months)

infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people, expectations formed (bowlby)

clear cut attachment (between 6-8 months and 1.5-2 years)

infant actively seeking contact with caregivers, shows separation anxiety (bowlby)

Reciprocal relationship (1.5-2 years on)

children take an active role in developing working partnerships with caregivers (bowlby)

Internal working model

mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general, working model guides interactions with people

The strange situation

Mary Ainsworth, child exposed to 7 episodes, main child assessment is response to separation and reunion, Identified attachment categories

Secure attachment

child has a high-quality, unambivalent relationship with attachment figure, in strange situation, child may be upset when the caregiver leaves but happy to see the caregiver return, recovers quickly from distress, use caregivers as a secure base for exploration, mothers read signals accurately, respond to needs, positive exchanges; these children seems to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers, have positive emotional health in adolescence, earn higher grades and are more involved in school

Insecure/ resistant (or ambivalent) attachment

child is clingy and stays close to caregiver rather than explore, tend to become very upset when caregiver leaves, not readily comforted by strangers, when the caregiver returns, not easily comforted, seeks comfort AND resists efforts by caregiver to comfort them, mothers inconsistent in responsiveness

Insecure/ avoidant attachment

child seems somewhat indifferent toward caregiver and may even avoid caregiver, children seem indifferent toward caregiver before caregiver leaves the room and indifferent or avoidant when caregiver returns, mothers are indifferent and emotionally unavailable

Disorganized/ disoriented attachment

children who do not fit into the other categories, infants seem to have no consistent way of coping with stress of the strange situation, their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented

Parental sensitivity

responsive caregiving when children are distressed or upset,

sex

biological differences between male (XY) bodies and female bodies (XX) or other genetic sex compositions

gender

categorization of identity (self and others)

cisgender

identify with their gender assigned at birth (or their biological sex)

transgender

individuals who do not identify with the gender assigned at birth

nonbinary

individuals who do not identify exclusively as one gender; also referred to as gender queer

gender-typed

behaviors expected for that person’s assigned gender

cross-gender-typed

behaviors expected for a gender different than the person’s assigned gender

gender typing

how gender identity is socialized

gender nonconforming

children with transgender or other non-cisgender identity or cisgender identity with cross-gender-typed interests

Gender identity (30 months)

children become aware of gender, but don’t realize it’s permanent (girl thinks she can grow up to be a father) (Kohlberg)

Gender stability (3 or 4 years)

children realize gender is stable over time, “I’m a girl and always will be a girl”, but give high importance to superficial cues (if a boy dresses like a girl, then he is a girl) (Kohlberg)

Gender constancy (5-7 years)

realize gender is invariant, seek out same-sex models to know how to behave, gender-typed behavior emerges (kohlberg)

tuition

way to learn gender, direct teaching (Bussey and Bandura)

enactive experience

way to learn gender, guiding behavior based on previous feedback (bussey and bandura)

observation

way to learn gender, watching other people (bussey and Bandura)

infancy gender development (6-9 month)

distinguish male and female faces using hairstyle, voices; understand gender categories, but not anything beyond that

toddler gender development (between 2-3 years)

categorize other people’s gender, understand own gender identity after they categorize others, 3 year olds use gender terms (like boy) in their speech

preschool gender dev (3-5 years)

3 years → attribute toys to gender; 5→ attribute characteristics to gender (warmth, aggression); increase in gender-typed play, gender segregation emerges (play more with same gendered peers)

Middle childhood gender dev (6-11 years)

gender socialization - increasing influence from peers, schools, media; 9-10 years children clear understanding of gender as a social category

gender-role intensification

heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles (part of adolescence gender dev)

gender-role flexibility

transcend traditional conventions and pursue a more flexible range of interests (part of adolescence gender dev)