PSYCH 354R: Interpersonal Relations Final Exam

What makes an intimate relationship interdependent?

Each partner's behaviour affects the other's outcomes. Influence is mutual, occurs across situations, and extends over time.

Why is relationship status alone not enough to prove that relationships cause greater well-being?

People who enter or remain in relationships may already differ from people who are single. This is the selection-effect problem, so relationship benefits cannot automatically be treated as causal.

Protection effect vs. selection effect: what is the difference?

Protection effect: the relationship itself produces benefits. Selection effect: people with certain pre-existing characteristics are more likely to enter or remain in relationships.

Why does the course discuss hindsight bias when studying relationships?

Relationship findings can feel obvious after we hear them. Scientific research is needed to test whether our intuitions about relationships are actually correct rather than assuming the result was predictable.

Why can a correlation between two relationship variables not tell us what caused what?

Because the direction may be reversed, or a third variable may explain both. Correlation shows association, not causation.

Why are longitudinal studies useful in relationship research?

They follow the same people over time, allowing researchers to examine how relationships change and whether one variable precedes another.

Why are daily diary or experience-sampling methods useful for studying couples?

They collect reports close to when experiences occur, reducing reliance on broad retrospective memories and capturing day-to-day relationship processes.

What problem can attrition create in longitudinal relationship research?

If people who leave the study differ systematically from those who stay, the remaining sample may no longer represent the original group.

What are the 3 components of love discussed in the course?

Passion, intimacy, and commitment.

What does passion contribute to love?

Intense emotional longing or preoccupation with another person, often accompanied by sexual desire.

What does intimacy contribute to love?

Warmth, closeness, caring, and sharing with the other person.

What does commitment contribute to love?

Dedication to maintaining the relationship.

How does romantic love differ from companionate love in the 3-component model?

Romantic love combines passion + intimacy without commitment. Companionate love combines intimacy + commitment with little or no passion.

What is the basic evolutionary argument for relationship preferences?

Preferences and behaviours that historically improved survival or reproductive success could become more common through natural and sexual selection.

What does parental investment theory predict about mate preferences?

Because ancestral reproductive costs differed, the sexes may have faced different adaptive problems and therefore developed somewhat different mate preferences and mating strategies.

What is an important limitation of evolutionary explanations of relationships?

It can be difficult to separate evolved mechanisms from behaviours learned through culture and experience, and ancestral conditions cannot be directly observed.

What are the 2 core questions underlying internal working models?

1. Am I worthy of love and care? 2. Can I rely on others to be available when I need them?

What do the model of self and model of other become in adult attachment research?

Model of self is commonly described as attachment anxiety. Model of other is commonly described as attachment avoidance.

What does high attachment anxiety look like in a relationship?

Uncertainty about being worthy of love, worry that a partner cares less, and vigilance for signs of rejection or loss of affection.

What does high attachment avoidance look like in a relationship?

Discomfort with intimacy or dependence because the person expects others to be unreliable or untrustworthy.

How do anxiety and avoidance combine to form the 4 attachment styles?

Secure = low anxiety/low avoidance. Preoccupied = high anxiety/low avoidance. Dismissing = low anxiety/high avoidance. Fearful-avoidant = high anxiety/high avoidance.

How does a secure person typically behave in close relationships?

Comfortable becoming emotionally close, comfortable depending on others and being depended on, and relatively unworried about rejection.

How does a preoccupied person typically behave in close relationships?

Strong desire for closeness combined with worry about rejection; may become clingy, vigilant, and emotionally reactive.

How does a dismissing person typically behave in close relationships?

Emphasizes independence, avoids intimacy, and is uncomfortable depending on others.

How does a fearful-avoidant person typically behave in close relationships?

Wants closeness but also fears rejection or being hurt, producing both anxiety and avoidance.

What are the main pieces of social exchange/interdependence theory?

Rewards, costs, outcomes, comparison level (CL), comparison level for alternatives (CLalt), dependence, and commitment.

How are relationship outcomes conceptualized in social exchange theory?

Outcomes = rewards minus costs.

What does the comparison level (CL) tell us?

It is the standard used to judge current outcomes. Outcomes above CL tend to produce satisfaction; outcomes below CL tend to produce dissatisfaction.

What does CLalt tell us?

It represents how well a person believes they could do in their best available alternative, including another relationship or being single.

Why can someone be dissatisfied but still stay in a relationship?

Their outcomes may be below their CL, making them dissatisfied, but still better than their CLalt, making them dependent on the current relationship.

What is the central idea of social learning theory for relationships?

Relationship quality is shaped by partners' observable exchanges: rewarding behaviours support the relationship, while punishing behaviours undermine it, and partners' responses reinforce future behaviour.

How can coercion theory create a negative relationship cycle?

One partner escalates negative behaviour until the other gives in. Giving in ends the unpleasant interaction, which reinforces both escalation and withdrawal/giving in.

What do social ecological models add to theories focused only on the couple?

They consider influences outside the dyad, such as family/friends, community, culture, economic conditions, and broader social environments.

What distinction does the course make between sex and gender?

Sex refers to biological characteristics; gender refers to social and psychological dimensions of masculinity, femininity, or other gender identities and is not necessarily binary.

How does social structural theory explain gender differences in relationships?

Different social roles and divisions of labour create different expectations, opportunities, and behaviours for men and women.

How does an evolutionary perspective explain some gender differences in mating?

Different ancestral reproductive pressures and parental investment may have shaped somewhat different mating preferences and strategies.

What are the 5 components of sexual orientation?

Romantic attraction, sexual attraction, sexual arousal, sexual behaviour, and sexual identity.

What is romantic attraction as a component of sexual orientation?

Feelings of love or emotional desire toward another person.

What is sexual attraction as a component of sexual orientation?

Feelings of sexual desire or lust toward another person.

What is sexual arousal as a component of sexual orientation?

The physiological sexual response a person experiences.

What is sexual behaviour as a component of sexual orientation?

The sexual interactions a person actually engages in.

What is sexual identity as a component of sexual orientation?

The label a person uses to describe their sexual orientation.

Why might the 5 components of sexual orientation not align?

Opportunity, culture, family acceptance, and personal identity can affect behaviour and labels, while attraction and arousal do not always translate directly into behaviour.

What does sexual fluidity mean?

Romantic or sexual desires can show flexibility or change across time or in response to particular people rather than remaining completely fixed.

What is the course's overall conclusion about biological influences on sexual orientation?

There is evidence for genetic and prenatal biological influences, but there is no single 'gay gene'; sexual orientation reflects multiple influences.

Overall, how do same-sex and mixed-sex relationships compare?

They are much more similar than different in satisfaction, commitment, common conflict topics, and conflict frequency.

What relationship advantages are sometimes observed in same-sex couples during conflict?

They may use more humour and behave more positively during arguments, possibly related to greater equality and less reliance on traditional gender roles.

How can household roles differ in same-sex versus mixed-sex couples?

Same-sex couples tend to divide household tasks more equally, consistent with less pressure to follow gender-specific roles.

What are the Big Five personality traits?

Conscientiousness, agreeableness, negative affectivity/neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion.

What does conscientiousness look like, and why can it help relationships?

Conscientious people are reliable, organized, disciplined, and responsible, so they are more likely to follow through on promises and obligations.

What does agreeableness look like, and why can it help relationships?

Agreeable people are trusting, generous, empathic, cooperative, and forgiving, which supports constructive partner interactions.

What is negative affectivity/neuroticism, and why is it important for relationships?

A tendency to frequently experience negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and hostility. It is the Big Five trait most strongly associated with lower satisfaction and divorce.

What does openness to experience describe?

Curiosity, imagination, flexibility, and receptiveness to new ideas and experiences.

What does extraversion describe?

A desire for social interaction, stimulation, activity, and outgoing behaviour.

Is relationship research mainly about whether partners have matching personalities?

No. The course emphasizes how each partner's traits influence relationship behaviour; having relationship-friendly traits can matter more than personality similarity.

How can family-of-origin experiences influence later romantic relationships?

They can shape emotion regulation, self-esteem, expectations, attachment, and communication patterns that people carry into adult relationships.

Does parental divorce automatically cause poor adult relationships?

No. It can increase risk, especially when combined with conflict and other difficulties, but many children of divorce later have healthy relationships.

Why can high parental conflict be especially important when considering children's later relationships?

Children can learn maladaptive communication patterns, experience lower emotional security, and later carry difficulties with emotion regulation and trust into their own relationships.

What 3 relationship areas can attachment insecurity affect?

Interpretation of partner behaviour, support-seeking/caregiving, and conflict management.

How can attachment insecurity affect interpretation of a partner's behaviour?

Insecure individuals may make more relationship-threatening interpretations or attributions about ambiguous partner behaviour.

How can attachment insecurity affect support-seeking and caregiving?

Support may become restrained or excessive rather than appropriately responsive to the situation.

How can attachment insecurity affect conflict management?

It can contribute to greater negative emotion and negative behaviour during conflict.

What major factors discussed in the course can increase attraction?

Physical attractiveness, proximity/familiarity, similarity, and reciprocity of liking are major influences.

What is the physical attractiveness stereotype?

The tendency to assume that physically attractive people also possess other positive qualities.

What does the matching hypothesis predict?

People tend to form relationships with partners who are relatively similar to themselves in physical attractiveness.

Why does proximity increase the chance of attraction?

Being physically or functionally close creates more opportunities to meet, interact, and become familiar with someone.

Why does similarity tend to increase attraction?

Shared attitudes, values, interests, and backgrounds can validate our own views and make interaction easier and more rewarding.

What is reciprocity of liking?

We tend to like someone more when we believe that person likes and values us.

How can repeated exposure affect attraction?

Repeated exposure can increase familiarity and liking when the initial reaction is not strongly negative.

What is mate poaching?

Intentionally attempting to attract someone who is already in a committed romantic relationship.

What does the course suggest about being 'hard to get'?

Selective availability can be appealing if the person seems desirable to others but clearly interested in the target; simply appearing uninterested is not inherently attractive.

Does similarity in personality strongly determine relationship success?

Not necessarily. Similarity in attitudes and background is more consistent; relationship-friendly personality traits themselves may matter more than personality matching.

What processes help create intimacy between partners?

Self-disclosure plus a responsive partner response—understanding, validation, and care—help create closeness.

Why is self-disclosure alone not enough to create intimacy?

Disclosure is more likely to produce intimacy when the partner responds in a way that communicates understanding, validation, and care.

What are the main forms of social support discussed in the course?

Emotional support, instrumental/practical support, and informational support.

What does emotional support provide?

Comfort, empathy, reassurance, validation, and care.

What does instrumental support provide?

Practical or tangible help that directly addresses a problem or demand.

What does informational support provide?

Advice, information, suggestions, or guidance that can help address a problem.

What is the basic idea of the self-expansion model?

People are motivated to expand their abilities, perspectives, identities, and resources; close relationships can facilitate this by allowing partners to include aspects of each other in the self.

What factors influence forgiveness after a partner's offense?

Seriousness of the offense, personality of the victim, qualities of the apology, and qualities of the relationship.

What are the intrapersonal and interpersonal sides of forgiveness?

Intrapersonal: developing feelings of goodwill toward the partner. Interpersonal: expressing goodwill and avoiding negative behaviour toward the partner.

What are approach and avoidance motivations in relational behaviour?

Approach = acting to obtain a positive outcome such as pleasure or closeness. Avoidance = acting to prevent a negative outcome such as rejection, conflict, or guilt.

Give an example of approach motivation for sexual behaviour.

Having sex because you want to feel close to your partner or experience mutual pleasure.

Give an example of avoidance motivation for sexual behaviour.

Having sex mainly to prevent a partner from feeling rejected or becoming upset.

What forms of consensual non-monogamy are discussed in the course?

Open relationships, polyamory, and swinging.

How does an open relationship differ from polyamory and swinging?

Open relationship: outside sexual partners are permitted. Polyamory: outside romantic/emotional relationships may occur. Swinging: couples engage sexually with other couples, typically as a social/sexual activity.

What does the course emphasize as essential for consensual non-monogamy to function well?

Genuine mutual consent, honesty, and ongoing communication about rules, expectations, and feelings.

What does the research reviewed in the course suggest about CNM and relationship dissatisfaction?

People in CNM relationships are not necessarily there because they are dissatisfied, nor are they necessarily more likely than monogamous people to become dissatisfied.

What is the course's main point about conflict in intimate relationships?

Conflict is inevitable when interdependent partners' goals interfere. The key issue is not whether couples have conflict, but how they manage it.

What 3 interaction characteristics distinguish unhappy from happy couples in Gottman's structural model?

1. Less positive/more negative behaviour. 2. More rigid and predictable interaction patterns. 3. Greater and longer-lasting negative reciprocity.

What does 'less positive and more negative behaviour' mean in unhappy couples?

Their interactions contain more negativity and less positive tone/behaviour than those of happier couples.

What does greater predictability/rigidity mean in unhappy couples?

Arguments tend to fall into the same recurring interaction pattern regardless of the original topic, making it harder to shift into constructive communication.

What is negative reciprocity, and how does it differ in unhappy couples?

One partner's negative behaviour triggers negative behaviour from the other. In unhappy couples, these exchanges occur more often and last longer.

What is the demand-withdraw pattern?

One partner pressures for discussion or change while the other avoids, disengages, or withdraws.

Why does the demand-withdraw pattern become self-reinforcing?

More demanding encourages more withdrawal, and the withdrawal encourages the demanding partner to press even harder.

Is demand-withdraw simply a male/female difference?

No. It is strongly related to who wants change: the partner seeking change is more likely to demand, while the other is more likely to withdraw.

Can anger ever have a constructive role during conflict?

Yes. When paired with direct communication, anger can signal that a problem matters and motivate change. The issue is how it is expressed and managed.

How can humour and affection help during conflict?

Positive emotion can buffer the effects of poor problem-solving and help prevent negative interactions from escalating.

How do happy and unhappy couples differ in interpreting partner statements?

Happy couples are more likely to interpret statements positively; unhappy couples may interpret even positively intended statements negatively.

What is reappraisal in relationship conflict?

Reframing the conflict from the perspective of a neutral third party who wants the best for everyone involved.