Ap psychology unit 1A

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring (physical or mental) (eye color, hair color, autism, etc.)

Nature

Biological or genetic causes of development (share music talent, intelligence, etc.)

Nurture

Influence of environmental factors on development

Genetic predisposition

An inherited genetic pattern that makes one susceptible to a certain disease (like inheriting schizophrenia)

Evolutionary perspective

How certain traits and behaviors help species survive and reproduce (why does this exist?)

Natural selection

Organisms better adapted to their environment survive and produce more offspring (“this is how it got there”)

Eugenics

Science dealing with improving hereditary qualities by getting rid of those seen as “weird” and leaving those seen as “normal”

Twin studies

Compare identical and fraternal twins to see how much a trait is hereditary

Family studies

Examine blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other on a trait

Adoption studies

Examine resemblance between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents

Neurons

Cells that receive information and transmit it to other cells

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Reflex arc

Rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus (pulling hand away from hot stove)

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

Nerves that control muscle movement

Interneurons

Act as a bridge between sensory and motor neurons

Neural transmission

Electrochemical communication within and between neurons

Action potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron’s axon

All-or-nothing principle

Once a neuron reaches its threshold, it fires at full strength

Depolarization

Phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside

Refractory period

Brief period after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when not firing

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Threshold

Minimum stimulation a neuron/sensory system needs to detect a stimulus

Multiple sclerosis

Autoimmune disease; immune system attacks myelin around nerve fibers

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemicals that increase the likelihood of an action potential

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood of an action potential

Dopamine

Reward, pleasure, motivation (like getting excited over a new phone)

Serotonin

Mood regulation and relaxation

Norepinephrine

Body goes into fight or flight; heart races when something feels off

Glutamate

Helps with learning and memory

GABA

Reduces anxiety; relaxes body/mind

Endorphins

Pain relief; think runner’s high or natural painkiller

Substance P

Pain perception

Acetylcholine

Muscle movements and memory

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands

Pituitary Gland

The “master gland”; releases hormones and controls other glands

Adrenaline

Fight or flight; energy surge during stress, fear, or excitement

Leptin

Reduces appetite and hunger (“I’m full”)

Ghrelin

Hormone that signals hunger (“I’m hungry”)

Melatonin

Sleep-inducing hormone

Oxytocin

Plays a role in social bonding, emotional connections, trust, and intimacy

Brainstem

Controls basic life functions like breathing, heartbeat, and sleep

Medulla

Base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular activating system (RAS)

Network in brainstem controlling alertness and arousal

Reward center

Brain areas that release dopamine and make you feel pleasure

Cerebellum

“Little brain”; controls balance, coordination, and fine motor skills

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of brain; responsible for higher thinking, perception, decision-making

Limbic system

Brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

Thalamus

Brain’s “relay station”; directs sensory messages to correct parts of the brain

Hypothalamus

Controls basic drives like hunger, thirst, sex; regulates body temperature; controls pituitary gland

Hippocampus

Helps form and store new memories

Amygdala

Emotion center; especially fear and aggression

Corpus callosum

Thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres

Somatosensory cortex

Part of parietal lobe; processes touch, pressure, temperature, pain

Executive functioning

Higher-level skills like planning, decision-making, self-control, problem-solving

Prefrontal cortex

Front of frontal lobe; controls judgment, planning, impulse control, personality

Motor cortex

Frontal lobe; controls voluntary muscle movements

Split-brain research

Studies on people with cut corpus callosum showing each hemisphere’s separate functions

Hemispheric specialization

Each brain hemisphere has specific functions (left = language/logic; right = creativity/spatial skills)

Broca’s area

controls speech production

Wernicke’s area

helps understand language

Aphasia (Broca’s/Wernicke’s)

Language disorder from brain damage; Broca: understand speech but struggle to speak; Wernicke: speak easily but words don’t make sense (word salad)

Contralateral hemispheric organization

Left brain controls right body, right brain controls left body

Plasticity

Brain’s ability to change/adapt by forming new connections after learning or injury

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Measures electrical activity in the brain using scalp sensors

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Brain scan showing structure and activity by tracking blood flow

Lesioning

When part of the brain is damaged or removed to study its function