Psychology Research Methods - KO Full

Aim

Aim

A general statement about what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study

Hypothesis

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between variables to be investigated

Directional hypothesis

States the direction of the difference or relationships

Non-directional hypothesis

Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

Variables

Any 'thing' that can very or change in an investigation

Independent variable

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured by the researcher

Extraneous variable

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV if not controlled

Operationalisation

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Confounding variable

Any variable other than the IV that will have affected the DV

Randomization

The use of change in order to control for bias in experiments

Investigator effects

Any effect of the investigator's behaviour on the research

Demand characteristics

Any cue that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation

Standardisation

Using exactly the same procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Experimental design

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organized in relation to the experimental conditions

Independent groups design

Participants are allocated to different groups where each groups represents one experimental condition

Repeated measures

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Matched pairs design

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable then placed in alternative conditions

Counterbalancing

Half the participants experience the conditions in one order (A then B) and the other half the opposite order (B then A)

Lab experiment

Takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and controls EVs

Field experiment

Takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV

Natural experiment

The change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there

Quasi experiment

The IV has not be determined by anyone -the variable simply exist e.g. age (not technically an experiment)

Population

A group of people who are the focus of the study

Sample

A group of people who take part in the study

Generalisation

The extent to which the findings and conclusions can be applied to the population

Random sampling

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

Systematic sampling

Every 'nth' member of the target population is selected

Stratified sampling

The sample reflects the proportions of people in the sub-groups (strata) within the target population

Opportunity sampling

Anyone who is willing and available to participate

Volunteer sampling

Participants select themselves to be part of the sample

Correlation

A technique in which a researcher investigates an association between 2 variables, called co-variables

Qualitative data

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical

Quantitative data

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

Primary data

Information that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project

Secondary data

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project.

Meta-analysis

Research about research -combining results from a number of studies on a topic to provide an overall view

Pilot study

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.

Naturalistic observation

Watching and recording behaviour in a natural setting

Controlled observation

Watching and recording behaviour in a structured setting

Covert observation

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Overt observation

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

Participant observation

The researcher becomes a member of the group

Non-participant observation

The researcher remains outside of the group

Behavioural categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

Event sampling

The researcher records every time a behaviour/event occurs

Time sampling

The researcher records behaviour in a fixed time frame

Measures of central tendency

The term for any measure of the average value in a set of data (mean, mode and median)

Measures of dispersion

The term for any measure of spread or variation in a data set (range and standard deviation)

Standard deviation

Tells us how much score deviate from the mean by calculating difference between mean and each score.

Normal distribution

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern.

Skewed distribution

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.

Positive skew

Type of distribution -long tail is on the positive (right) side of peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.

Negative skew

Type of distribution -long tail is on the negative (left) side of peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right

Sign test

A statistical test used to analysethe difference in scores between related items. Data should be nominal

Content analysis

A technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce.

Coding

Stage of content analysis where communication is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories

Thematic analysis

A qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes often emerge.

Face validity

A form of validity in which a measure is scrutinized to determine whether it measures what it's supposed to

Concurrent validity

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure.

Ecological validity

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings and situations

Temporal validity

The extent to which findings can be generalized to other historical times and eras

Levels of measurement

Quantitative data can be classified into levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal and interval.

Probability

A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility.

Significance

A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists.

Critical value

When testing a hypothesis,the numerical cut-off point between acceptance and rejection of the hypothesis.

Type 1 error

Incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (false positive)

Type 2 error

Failure to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)

Paradigm

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Paradigm Shift

The result of scientific evolution - a significant change in the dominant theory