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Four basic tissue types
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Three germ layers formed during gastrulation
Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.
Three layers of the integumentary system
Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis.
Part of the brain that regulates reproduction
The hypothalamus.
Definition of an organ
A structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.
Chemical level of organization
Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level
Groups of similar cells performing a specific function.
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level
Different organs working together closely.
Organismal level
All systems working together to maintain life.
Interdependent systems involved in nutrient/waste exchange
Digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, urinary, and integumentary systems.
Function of the digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, eliminates unabsorbed matter.
Function of the respiratory system
Takes in O₂ and eliminates CO₂.
Function of the cardiovascular system
Transports gases, nutrients, and wastes.
Function of the urinary system
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and maintains ion balance.
Function of the integumentary system
Protects the body from the external environment.
Definition of interstitial fluid
The fluid that surrounds cells, mediating exchange between blood and cells.
Definition of homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Key variables maintained by homeostasis
Temperature, water, glucose, oxygen, nutrients, pH, ions, blood pressure, excretion.
Systems involved in homeostatic regulation
Nervous and endocrine systems.
Negative feedback mechanism
A response that reduces or shuts off the original stimulus.
Example of negative feedback
Thermoregulation via sweating or shivering.
Role of effectors in feedback loops
To carry out the response dictated by the control center.
Definition of homeostatic imbalance
A disturbance in homeostasis that can lead to disease or aging.
Normal blood pH range
7.35-7.45.
Definition of acidosis
Arterial blood pH < 7.35.
Definition of alkalosis
Arterial blood pH > 7.45.
pH of intracellular fluid
Around 7.0.
pH formula
pH = -log[H⁺].
Definition of strong acids
Acids that fully dissociate in water.
Definition of weak acids
Acids that only partially dissociate.
Definition of strong bases
Bases that fully dissociate and bind H⁺ quickly.
Definition of weak bases
Bases that slowly accept H⁺ (e.g., bicarbonate, ammonia).
Definition of buffers
Molecules that resist changes in pH.
Three major chemical buffer systems
Bicarbonate, phosphate, protein.
Where bicarbonate buffer system is most important
In the extracellular fluid (ECF).
Effect of adding a strong acid to bicarbonate buffer system
H⁺ combines with HCO₃⁻ to form H₂CO₃ (weak acid), limiting pH change.
Effect of adding a strong base to bicarbonate buffer system
Reacts with H₂CO₃ to form a weak base, limiting pH increase.
Where phosphate buffer system is most active
In urine and intracellular fluid.
Why proteins are effective buffers
They can act as both acids and bases due to their amino acid groups.
Physiological buffering systems
Respiratory and renal systems.
What respiratory system regulates in acid-base balance
CO₂ levels (affecting H⁺ concentration).
What renal system regulates
Excretion or retention of H⁺ and HCO₃⁻.
Definition of respiratory acidosis
Condition from hypoventilation or lung disease → CO₂ builds up → pH drops.
Compensation for respiratory acidosis
Kidneys excrete H⁺ and reabsorb HCO₃⁻.
Respiratory alkalosis
Condition from hyperventilation → CO₂ drops → pH rises.
Respiratory alkalosis compensation
Kidneys retain H⁺ and excrete HCO₃⁻.
Metabolic acidosis causes
Excess acid production or loss of bicarbonate (e.g., DKA, diarrhea).
Metabolic acidosis compensation
Hyperventilation (Kussmaul respiration) to blow off CO₂.
Metabolic alkalosis causes
Vomiting, excess antacids, constipation.
Metabolic alkalosis compensation
Hypoventilation to retain CO₂ and increase H⁺ production.
Homeostasis
The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment.
Normal blood calcium range
8.6-10.3 mg/dL.
Insulin production
Beta (β) cells in the pancreas.
Insulin function
Lowers blood glucose by increasing glucose uptake into cells.
Glucagon production
Alpha (α) cells in the pancreas.
Glucagon function
Increases blood glucose by breaking down glycogen (glycogenolysis).
Diabetes mellitus
A disease where blood glucose levels are too high due to issues with insulin.
Types of diabetes
Type 1: No insulin production; Type 2: Insulin resistance.
Endocrine system function
To regulate body processes using hormones.
Endocrine vs Nervous system
The endocrine system uses hormones (slower, longer-lasting effects), while the nervous system uses nerve impulses (faster).
Major endocrine glands
Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal.
Amino acid-based hormones
Water-soluble hormones that bind to membrane receptors.
Steroid hormones
Lipid-soluble hormones that enter cells and affect gene expression.
Negative feedback
A system where a hormone's effects reduce its further release.
Pituitary gland lobes
Anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis).
Posterior pituitary hormones
Oxytocin & ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
Oxytocin and ADH production
In the hypothalamus.
ADH function
Reduces urine production by increasing water reabsorption in kidneys.
Growth hormone (GH) function
Stimulates body growth, protein synthesis, and metabolism.
TSH function
Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
ACTH function
A hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
Major metabolic hormone
Thyroid hormone (T3 & T4).
Thyroid hormone regulation
Regulates metabolism, growth, and blood pressure.
Hypothyroidism effects
Slow metabolism, weight gain, cold intolerance.
Hyperthyroidism effects
Fast metabolism, weight loss, heat intolerance.
Adrenal cortex hormones
Aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.
Aldosterone function
Regulates sodium and potassium levels, affecting blood pressure.
Cortisol function
Increases blood glucose and suppresses the immune system.
Adrenal medulla hormones
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Types of bone
Compact bone and spongy bone.
Red bone marrow location
In spongy bone.
Osteoblasts function
To build new bone tissue.
Osteoclasts function
To break down bone tissue.
Epiphyseal plate
The growth plate where bones lengthen.
Blood calcium increase hormone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Blood calcium decrease hormone
Calcitonin.
Osteoporosis
A condition where bones become weak and brittle.
Types of bone growth
Interstitial (length) and appositional (width).
Passive transport
Movement of molecules without energy input.
Diffusion
Movement from high to low concentration.
Osmosis
Diffusion of water.
Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport using a protein channel.
Active transport
Movement of molecules using ATP.
Primary active transport example
Na+/K+ pump.
Secondary active transport example
Glucose transport using sodium gradients.
Endocytosis
The process of engulfing substances into the cell.
Exocytosis
The process of expelling substances from the cell.
