Human Food & Nutrition Chapter 4 - Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches, and Fibers Vocabulary

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering terminology, structures, digestion, enzymes, hormones, and health impacts of carbohydrates from Chapter 4 notes.

Carbohydrates

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen arranged as monosaccharides or multiples of monosaccharides.

Sugars

Simple carbohydrates consisting of monosaccharides, disaccharides, or both.

Monosaccharides

Single-ring, six-carbon simple carbohydrates.

Glucose

A monosaccharide functioning as blood sugar in the body and dextrose in foods; it is mildly sweet and an essential energy source.

Fructose

A monosaccharide known as fruit sugar that is also found in honey and saps; it is the sweetest of the monosaccharides.

Galactose

A monosaccharide that is part of lactose and is the least or barely sweet monosaccharide.

Disaccharides

Pairs of monosaccharides linked together; categorized as simple carbohydrates.

Maltose

A disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes called malt sugar.

Sucrose

A disaccharide composed of glucose + fructose; commonly known as table sugar (also beet or cane sugar).

Lactose

A disaccharide composed of glucose + galactose; commonly known as milk sugar.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharides linked together.

Glycogen

An animal polysaccharide made of glucose; the storage form of glucose made and stored in the liver and muscles.

Starches

Plant polysaccharides made of many glucose molecules.

Dietary fibers

Plant nonstarch polysaccharides not digested by human enzymes, although some can be broken down by GI bacteria.

Condensation

A chemical process that links two monosaccharides together to make a disaccharide.

Hydrolysis

A process common in digestion that breaks a disaccharide apart using water to split the bond.

Fermentable

Describes the extent to which GI bacteria can break down fibers into fragments the body can use.

Soluble fiber

Fiber that dissolves in water to form a gel and is fermentable; sources include oats, legumes, and citrus.

Viscous

Having a gel-like consistency.

Insoluble fiber

Fiber that does not dissolve in water; sources include whole grains and vegetables.

Functional fiber

Fiber extracted from plants and added to foods or supplements, such as cellulose.

Resistant starch

Starch that escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

Starch retrogradation

A process where a new structure forms after some cooked starches cool, making them more resistant to digestion.

Phytic acid / phytate

A nonnutrient plant component that binds minerals in the intestine, reducing their absorption.

Amylase

An enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates and starch.

Maltase

An enzyme acting on maltose, yielding two glucose molecules.

Sucrase

An enzyme acting on sucrose, yielding glucose and fructose.

Lactase

An enzyme acting on lactose, yielding glucose and galactose.

Lactose intolerance

Inability to digest lactose, which may cause bloating, gas, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.

Lactase deficiency

Lack of the enzyme required to digest lactose, present in about $70\%$ of the world's population who lack enough lactase in adult life.

Kefir

Fermented milk containing bacteria that break down lactose to glucose and galactose.

Liver glycogen

About $\frac{1}{4}$ of the body's glycogen stored in the liver, which can be released as needed.

Muscle glycogen

About $\frac{3}{4}$ of the body's glycogen stored in muscles, kept for their own use, especially during exercise.

Gluconeogenesis

The metabolic process of making glucose from noncarbohydrate sources such as amino acids or glycerol.

Protein-sparing action

The role of carbohydrate (and fat) in providing energy so protein can be spared for other essential functions.

Ketone

An acidic compound produced by the liver during fat breakdown when carbohydrate is not available.

Ketosis

An undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies in the blood and urine.

Acid-base balance

Equilibrium between acid and base concentrations in the body.

Blood glucose homeostasis

The maintenance of blood glucose within a normal range.

Insulin

A pancreatic hormone released in response to elevated blood glucose that promotes the movement and storage of glucose from blood into cells.

Glucagon

A pancreatic hormone released when blood glucose is low that stimulates the release of glucose from liver glycogen.

Epinephrine

An adrenal hormone (adrenaline) involved in the stress response that can promote glucose release from liver glycogen into the blood.

Diabetes

A metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose resulting from insufficient insulin, ineffective insulin, or both.

Prediabetes

Elevated blood glucose levels that are below the diagnostic threshold for diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes

A less common type of diabetes where the pancreas produces little or no insulin due to autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells.

Type 2 diabetes

A more common type of diabetes where cells fail to respond normally to insulin (insulin resistance) along with insufficient insulin secretion.

Hypoglycemia

An abnormally low blood glucose concentration.

Glycemic response

How quickly glucose is absorbed after eating, how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal.

Glycemic index

A method of classifying foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose.

Nutrient displacement

A condition where foods high in added sugars provide energy and glucose with few essential nutrients, displacing nutrient-rich foods.

Artificial sweeteners

Sugar substitutes that provide little to no energy; examples include aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose.

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)

The estimated amount of a sweetener that can be consumed daily over a lifetime without adverse effects.

Stevia

A plant-based/herbal sweetener that is Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS).

Sugar alcohols / polyols

Sugarlike compounds such as xylitol, mannitol, and sorbitol that provide kcalories and do not contribute to dental caries.

Carbohydrate AMDR

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range recommending that $45\text{--}65\%$ of total energy intake should come from carbohydrates.