Chapter 12- Cognition and Intelligence

cognition

The process by which we focus on ideas, remember them, and work with them, involving decision-making, problem-solving, language, perception, and memory.

concepts

The groupings or categories you use to classify related images, ideas, information, events, or objects based on their shared similarities.

prototype

the best, shining example or representation of a concept

exemplar model

suggests each example within a group or category is a good representation of the concept

schemas

refers to conceptual frameworks organized into clusters of knowledge that help you make sense of new information.

reasoning

The purposeful use of facts and available information to form coherent thoughts, draw conclusions, and make progress toward goals.

Inductive Reasoning

a line of reasoning that uses the available facts to build a theory. This “bottom-up” approach involves making generalizations from specifics.

Deductive Reasoning

using experience and existing knowledge to form a theory that allows you to interpret subsequent information and observations.

Decision-Making

The process by which you assess alternatives and select the best option.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that systematically attempts all possible solutions.

intuition

an instant sense of understanding that does not require reasoning (going with your gut)

heuristic

A guideline, mental shortcut, or “rule of thumb” designed to quicken thinking while making decisions.

Decision Aversion

a reluctance to choose among available options

Overconfidence

We give ourselves too much credit for what we think we know and how well we know it and for our good judgment. confidence is most likely when knowledge is either particularly high (we’re an expert) or particularly low (we actually know almost nothing

Availability heuristic

A guideline or mental shortcut that something must be common if examples easily come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

A guideline or mental shortcut that depends on the best example of a category that comes to mind.

The Gambler’s Fallacy

the mistaken belief that because something has previously happened less frequently, it is now more likely

law of small numbers

the mistaken belief that limited or small samples represent the broader population

Survivorship Bias

giving too much credit to successes while undervaluing failures

belief perseverance

holding on to existing beliefs despite minimal or even contrary evidence

confirmation bias

occurs when we seek out and prefer information that agrees with preconceived notions and then interpret information in a way that affirms existing beliefs

anchoring heuristic

the original starting value exerts more influence than it should

Problem-solving

The mental processes we use to assess and figure out complex issues or work out unclear situations to reach a goal.

subgoal analysis

breaks a large problem into smaller steps

backward search

starting at the end and working back toward where you are right now

means-end analysis

focuses your attention on the goal and the best means of getting to it

insight

a sudden feeling of comprehension that leads to a solution

Functional fixedness

Only considering an object’s most common use.

Fixation

occurs when you focus too much on one aspect of a problem and fail to consider alternatives

Mental set

The reliance on a strategy that previously worked to solve a similar problem.

Language

A communication system consisting of symbols (usually words) and rules to systematically organize those symbols to convey information.

Linguistic determinism

The theory that the language you use dictates your thoughts.

phonemes

the raw sounds of language

morphemes

the smallest unit of language that conveys meaning

lexicon

a collection of a language’s morphemes

syntax

how words combine

semantics

the study of meaning within words

Grammar

the rules that guide word creation and sentence formation

receptive vocabulary

what you understand

productive vocabulary

what you can say

Sarcasm

The use of ironic or satirical wit to convey an alternate or opposite meaning.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, adapt to, and shape environments.

Fixed mindset

The view that intelligence is stable and unchangeable.

Growth mindset

The view that intelligence is malleable and a quality to cultivate.

Creative intelligence

generates new ideas and materials.

Analytical intelligence

works with information

practical intelligence

the ability to apply previous knowledge and skills to adapt to your environment. include soft survival skills: being aware of the surroundings, navigating public transportation, learning the unwritte n social rules for dining out, knowing how to be a good neighbor, making friends with local merchants, and avoiding dangerous situations.

two-factor theory of intelligence

general intelligence (g), a general factor that underlies all mental abilities, and

specific skills (s), specific factors unique to each task.

Crystalized intelligence (gC)

The ability to draw upon previous knowledge and experience.

Fluid intelligence (gF)

The ability to understand new information, solve novel problems, decipher abstract relationships, and use logical reasoning in unfamiliar environments.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Your ability to control your body movements and skillfully handle objects

Interpersonal Intelligence

Your ability to gauge others’ feelings, moods, and motivations and respond appropriately

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Your ability to know yourself, to be self-aware, and to understand your emotions, motivations, beliefs, thought processes, and values

Linguistic Intelligence

Your ability to adeptly use language, including sensitivity to sounds and rhythms of words, and strong verbal skills

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Your ability to analyze problems, engage in abstract thinking, work conceptually, identify logical patterns, and work well with numbers

Musical Intelligence

Your ability to think in rhythms and sounds, appreciate pitch and timber, and produce music

Naturalist Intelligence

Your ability to be in tune with nature, engage with the environment (e.g., hiking, camping), and show interest in identifying animals, insects, and plants in nature

Spatial Intelligence

Your ability to accurately visualize complex and abstract forms, and to think and work with pictures and images

existential intelligence

the ability to ask and address profound questions about the meaning of life, human existence, human origins, and death.

digital intelligence

captures individuals’ ability to work with digital mediums, use technology effectively, and adapt to the digital world

cultural intelligence

one’s effectiveness at interacting with people from other cultures and dealing with problems related to cultural differences

emotional intelligence

The social ability to detect, appraise, and express appropriate emotions in yourself and others.

divergent thinking

identifying many possible solutions

convergent thinking

identifying a single correct solution

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

The numeric representation of how a person’s mental abilities compare to others of their same chronological age.

Flynn effect

The finding that IQ scores at the societal level in industrialized nations have been steadily increasing over decades.