Human Communication Chapters 5-8 Exam Study Guide

Non-verbal Communication

Any communication without words

What does non-verbal mean?

Check the context, compare current behavior to baseline behavior, ask for verbal feedback.

What are the four characteristics of non-verbal communication?

-unintentional.

-consists of multiple codes.

-immediate, continuous, and natural.

-is both universal and cultural.

Why may non-verbal communication be unintentional?

As receivers we should not assume that every non-verbal act is an intentional message. Some non-verbal communication is subconscious and exists simply because we are animated beings.

We should always check for alternative interpretations, and we should realize that reading non-verbals is a risky business.

We should try to make our verbal and non-verbal messages congruent and clear.

How does non-verbal communication provide relational information?

Liking is indicated through facial expression, eye contact, proximity, and the like.

Responsiveness, the degree to which we are psychologically involved in an interaction, is shown by cues as rate and volume of speech.

Status is often conveyed through posture and gesture, through touch and proximity, and by the objects we display.

Emotional expression is conveyed through non-verbal communication.

How are non-verbal messages used in conjunction with Non-verbal messages.?

Non-verbal messages should make our verbal messages congruent and clear.

Define repeating

Repeats the verbal message

Define substituting

Substitutes for the verbal message.

Define complementing

The non-verbal message modifies the verbal message letting the receiver know how to take it (continuously).

Define accenting

Non-verbal cues emphasize the verbal message (Momentarily, emphasizing a point).

Define regulating

The non-verbal message manages and controls behavior.

Define emblems

Kinesic behaviors whose direct verbal translations are known to all members of a social group.

Define illustrators

Gestures that accompany speech and add to the meaning of utterances.

Define regulators

Consists of head nods and eye and hand movements that allow us to maintain, request, deny others, or return to talk. They act as "traffic signals" during interaction.

Define affect displays

Body movements that convey emotional states.

Define leakage cue

When a person is lying, he or she generally experiences heightened emotional arousal. If this arousal is not suppressed, it will act as a leakage cue.

Define adaptors

Behaviors people use to adapt to stresses and satisfy personal needs. They are a good source of information about emotions.

Define cultural display rules

Some cultures consider a lack of emotional display appropriate.

Define professional display rules

Rules for facial expression based on career considerations are called professional display rules.

Define paralinguistics

The study of sounds that accompany words.

Define paralanguage

Includes vocal qualities of the voice, such as pitch, tone, and intonation patterns.

Define vocalizations

Special sounds that convey meaning, such as groans, cries, moans, etc.

Define vocal segregates

Pauses and fillers such as "um" and "uh."

Define chronemics

The study of time as it affects human behavior.

Define proxemics

The study of how we use space and what space means to us.

Define progressive spirals

The partner's behaviors lead to increasing levels of involvement and satisfaction.

Define regressive spirals

When misunderstanding leads to more misunderstanding. Eventually damaging a relationship.

Define initiating stage

Couple's initial encounter as communicators. In this stage partners try to accomplish three things: create favorable initial impressions, carefully observe each other for cues about personality, attitudes, and a willingness to engage in further interactions.

Define experimenting stage

Partners look for common ground upon which to build their relationship. It consists of phatic communication or small talk.

Define intensifying stage

Individuals make initial moves toward greater involvement. Self-disclosure increases, and the use of nicknames and terms of endearment become more common.

Define integrating stage

The individuals become a couple both in their own and in other's eyes. Attitudes and interests are shared and social circles merge.

Define bonding stage

Consists of a public ritual to legitimize a relationship. Marriage is the most common form of bonding.

Define differentiating stage

A couple begins to notice and comment on previously overlooked differences. Partners discover substantial areas of disagreement, which can then become major topics of conversation. Overt argument and conflict are hallmarks of this stage.

Define circumscribing stage

Members carefully restrict their communication. Certain topics are placed "off limits" because they are too painful.

Define stagnating stage

This stage is characterized by silence and inactivity. Communication is infrequent, and when it does occur it is stylized, rigid and awkward, as though the partners were strangers.

Define avoiding stage

Partners separate either physically or emotionally.

Define sociological level rules

Are tied to group membership and are used when people belong to a specific group within our culture.

Define psychological level rules

Partners in an interaction make up the rules themselves.

Define self-disclosure

Occurs when one person voluntarily tells another person things about himself in which the other is unlikely to know or discover from other sources.

Self disclosure is the voluntary revealing of information that would normally be obtainable in interpersonal relationships.

Define expressive-protective dialectic

The expressive-protective dialectic involves finding a balance between the need to share personal information and to maintain privacy.

Define autonomy-togetherness dialectic

The Autonomy-togetherness dialectic: Here friends and couples decide how interdependent they want to be.

Define novelty-predictability dialectic

Finding a balance between life's routines and change. Some people get bored with the same routine, while others get security from continued routines. The key here is balance between the two.

Define disconfirmations

Disconfirmations are rejecting responses: Responses that leave us with a diminished sense of self-respect.

Define impervious response

Fails to acknowledge a message.

Define irrelevant response

People burst into conversations and immediately change the subject to something that has no bearing on what was said before.

Define tangential response

An individual briefly acknowledges the topic but then goes on to discuss his or her interests.

Define term paradoxes

Double messages that have mixed meanings. "I know you'll do well, but don't worry if you fail."

Define terminating stage

The final stage in relational disengagement is the terminating stage. If both parties are aware that their relationship is dissolving, it may come as a relief. Or, it may be a heart-wrenching surprise.

Define social penetration model

All relationships develop intimacy through self-disclosure. As couples voluntarily engage in self-disclosure increasing in the breadth of topics discussed as well as the depth of those topics, intimacy is created and maintained.

Define and apply the characteristics of groups

A collection of people develop into a group through interaction.

The behaviors of group members become interdependent; in a true group any action by one affects all.

Interdependence is an important characteristic of groups, for it means that separate individuals have become a functioning whole.

The stronger and more cohesive group members have about their sense of membership, the stronger their collective identity, and the more the members become a team.

Define and apply the advantages of communicating in groups

Advantage One: Groups provide more input than do individuals.

Advantage Two: Cohesive groups provide support and commitment.

Advantage Three: Groups can meet individual's personal needs.

Interpersonal needs: The need for inclusion, control, and affection.

Inclusion need: The need to establish identity by associating with others.

Control need: The need to prove one's worth and competence by making effective decisions.

Affection need: The need to develop close, caring relationships with others.

Define groupthink

A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.

Define symptoms of groupthink: illusions of Invulnerability

Belief in the group's own morality, shared stereotypes, collective rationalizations, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, pressure on dissenters, mind-guards. See separate definitions below.

Define illusions of invulnerability

A group immersed in groupthink believes so strongly it is the best that it loses all sense of reality.

Define the group's own morality

Members feel that their actions and beliefs are more valuable than those of people outside the group.

Define shared stereotypes

Members take on an "us versus them" mentality.

Define collective rationalizations

Explain problems or failures.

Define self-censorship

Individual members who begin to doubt the group feel strong pressures toward self-censorship (i.e. They do not express their doubts.)

Define illusions of unanimity

A doubting member will believe that everyone else agrees with the chosen action.

Define pressure on dissenters

If a dissenting member speaks up, he or she is severely sanctioned.

Define mind-guards

"Protect" the group from negative information.

Define Fisher's Four Phase Model of Group development.

Orientation Phase: Group members begin the complex process of becoming interdependent. It is marked by primary tension.

Conflict Phase: Group members experience a new kind of stress called secondary tension.

Emergence Stage: Members who have opposed the leading solution begin to back down, replacing their earlier strong disagreement with noncommittal, somewhat ambiguous comments.

Reinforcement Stage: Members bolster their decision through the expression of favorable comments and positive reinforcement.

Define the characteristics of a good leader

Certain characteristics such as persistence, intelligence, originality, self-confidence, and the ability to handle stress are related to successful leadership.

Define the democratic leadership style

When leaders have the final word, yet draw on the expertise of individual group members.

Define the authoritarian or autocratic leadership style

Leader has absolute power, and power is not evenly distributed among group members.

Define the Laissez-Faire Leadership style

Leader simply fails to lead, and the group is left "leaderless" in making their own decisions.

Define defensive climate

Group members feel threatened.

Define supportive climate

Group members feel positive toward other group members and feel free to share their ideas.

Define evaluation vs. description. List evaluation as a defensive behavior

Although those in positions of leadership must make formal evaluations as part of their jobs, leaders must not continually evaluate a person's behavior, but offer a description of behavior that does not place blame on someone else when problems arise.

Define control vs. problem orientation

Leaders should also avoid the temptation to control their employees' behaviors when there is an issue in the workplace. Instead, leaders should focus on the problem and not imply that the employee is the problem. In other words, if a leader is trying to control the employee, he or she is saying, "You are the problem, and if I can just fix you, everything will be fine."

Define strategy vs. spontaneity

Strategy is another word for manipulating an employee without being honest, and this will create defensive behaviors from employees if they find they have been manipulated in some way. Spontaneity, on the other hand, consists of open and honest communication, and employees will feel that a leader supports them if the leader is honest and open to their ideas.

Define neutrality vs. empathy

Neutrality causes defensive behaviors because it communicates to the employees that a leader is not concerned for them as human beings. Empathy, on the other hand, is the opposite of neutrality. A leader who demonstrates empathy to his or her employees will create a positive communication environment and will be an effective leader.

Define superiority vs. equality

If a leader projects the persona that he or she is superior, or worth more than the employees, that leader will create defensiveness in his or her employees. If a leader expresses that his or her employees' ideas are just as important that leader will express equality.

Define certainty vs. provisionalism

If a person communicates that he or she is right all the time and is never open to employees' ideas, he or she will create a defensive communication climate. Considering the results of these behaviors in organizations, an effective leader should avoid defensive behaviors and establish supportive behaviors.

Define situational approach to leadership

This occurs when a leader primarily uses a democratic leadership style, but in times of crisis or strict deadlines may shift to an authoritarian style to make a quick and important decision.

Define the term organization

An organization is a system consisting of a large number of people working together in a structured way to accomplish multiple goals.

Define the term interdependence in organizations

Interdependence means that all the members within an organization are connected to one another.

Define the term hierarchical structure

A hierarchy is a system that is divided into orders and ranks. The classic form of a hierarchy is a bureaucracy.

Define the term bureaucracies

Bureaucracies have a clear chain of command. Every member of the organization reports to someone who is responsible for overseeing his or her work. Jobs are usually specialized and employees are rewarded on the basis of performance.

Explain why organizations are dependent on communication.

Tom D. Daniels points out that we should not think of organizations as "things," but rather as elaborate and complicated forms of human behavior. One of the most important kinds of behavior is communication.

Define climate

Organizational identity

Define structurational approach

The belief that there is a reciprocal relationship between organizational structures and organizational communication.

Know how communication in the organizational context differs from every day or interpersonal communication

Choice and power. The organization chooses who we work with, and levels of power are matched with levels of authority; therefore, you cannot talk to your boss the way you would talk to a friend.

Define the term information flow

The path information takes as it passes through the organization. The effective use of communication channels was directly linked to organizational effectiveness and employee satisfaction.

Define the term formal channels of communication

Formal channels of communication occur when information flows through a structured chain of command officially recognized by the organization.

Define the term informal channels of communication

Informal channels of communication occur when a more personal and less structured path occur.

Define the term organizational chart

A visual representation of the organization's chain of command.

Define the term downward flow

Occurs when someone from near the top of the organization sends a message to someone near the bottom.

Define the term horizontal flow

Takes place when communication occurs between people at the same level.

Define the term upward flow

When a message travels from the bottom of the chart toward the top.

Define the term downward communication

When a supervisor discusses the results of a yearly evaluation with a subordinate or explains travel policies to new employees, the supervisor is using downward communication.

What are the three reasons why employees in most organizations report dissatisfaction with downward communication?

Inadequacy of information.

Inappropriate means of diffusing information. Filtering of information.

General persuasive climate of dominance and submission.

Define the terms inadequacy of information

There is not enough information to be completely informed of a situation.

Define the term inappropriate means of diffusing information

Information goes through too many channels so that the message is inaccurate when in reaches people that are ranked lower within the organization.

Define the term filtering of information

Information is filtered for specific reasons to benefit those in authority of an organization rather than those who are lower in rank. Some information is intentionally left out.

Define the term gatekeeper in an organizational context

A gatekeeper is someone who is in a position to pass or disregard information. Gene Kranz was a gatekeeper during part of the Apollo 13 mission.

Define the term ombudsman

This person's job is to listen to lower levels of the organization to pass their concerns directly to the top.

What are the factors that can make horizontal communication ineffective?

When experts who have been trained in different areas try to work together.

Differences in the way workers approach problems can get in the way.

Use of technical jargon stemming from the various fields.

Territoriality may raise its ugly head.

Define the term grapevine

The statement, "I heard it through the grapevine," he or she means the information came through an informal channel.

Define the term network analysis

A method of mapping informal communication patterns. Network analysts can identify who is connected to whom in the organization. They can also specify the role each individual plays in an informal role.