AP Psych 2025 4.1, 4.4, 4.5 , 4.6

Attribution theory

Explains WHY behaviors happen

Explanatory style

How we describe why those behaviors happen

Dispositional Factors

Internal in nature and relatively unchanging

Situational Factors

External in nature and relatively temporary

Fundamental attribution error

Overestimating the effect of dispositional factors in an individual’s behavior. Minimizes he effect of situational fctors

Optimistic explanatory style

Explains behavior guided by external causes that are relatively temporary. Those causes tend to be very specific

Pessimistic explanatory style

Explains behavior guided by personal causes that are relatively permanent. Those causes tend to be more pervasive (general)

Cognitive Biases

Influence the way we attribute our behaviors and thoughts. (ex heuristics, confirmation biases, etc)

Availability heuristics

These distorts estimates of how likely something is to occur.

Locus of Control

The amount of control people perceive they have over events or conditions in their lives

Internal Locus of Control

Believing that life events or conditions are the result of one’s own efforts and abilities. One has control over what happens to them

External Locus of control

Life events or conditions result from things outside of one’s control. Things happen and there is not much that can be done about it

Mere exposure effect

Frequency → Familiarity → Positivity

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

This contributes to familiarity in the mere exposure effect. False belief about a situation could bring out a new behavior making the false belief become true.

Social comparison

Comparing oneself with others for self-evaluation.

Personality

Patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. A way to describe who you are to others in your life

What are the theories that help us understand our enduring characteristics?

psychodynamic, humanistic, trait and social cognitive theories

Psychoanalytic theory

Sigmund Freud - There are 4 things that dictate your personality : childhood, unconscious, sexual + aggressive impulses, and anxiety driven defense mechanisms

Psychodynamic theory

Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney - 3 things dictate your personality: childhood, unconscious, and anxiety driven defense mechanisms

Iceberg analogy

Three parts to our personality that work together to control impulses and make decisions (according to freud)

ID, Superego, Ego

Id

The earliest part of our personality to develop. It seeks immediate gratification and will do anything to satisfy needs and desires. Located entirely in the unconscious mind and operates on the pleasure principle

Ego

Develops in early childhood, acts as a reality check. Mostly in the conscious mind, Operates on the reality principle, mediator of id, superego, and reality. Wants to realistically bring pleasure over pain

Superego

Develops around the age of 5 and is the voice of our conscience. Strives for perfection and wants you to be proud. It is present in both the conscious and unconscious mind, driven by a moral compass, focuses on how we should behave

Denial

Refusing ti believe a painful reality

Displacement

Shifting tension to a less threatening target

Projection

Attributing unacceptable impulses onto someone else

Rationalization

Giving a logical reason to justify unacceptable behavior

Reaction formation

Unacceptable impulses are replaced with their opposites

Regression

Resorting to an earlier stage of development

Repression

Pushing unwanted memories into the unconscious

Sublimation

Agressive drives are channeled into something acceptable

Projection tests

Symmetrical ink blots are presented to an individual who is asked what they represent. Personality is assessed by looking for trends in answers.

Abraham Maslow

Wants us to ask ourselves how we go about reaching our full potential

Carl Rogers

Wants us to live up to our ideal self and understand we are basically good

Maslow’s Self Actualization

We continue to grow into the person we want to become, and we want to reach your full potential. This takes time. People who have reached self actualization can easily answer the question “who am I"

Rogers and Unconditional Positive Regard

We look for unconditional positive regard in trusted relationships. We want to feel that we will not be negatively judged for anything. When we have gained this, we can let our guard down and be true to ourselves. Leads to a person-centered perspective in personality

Psychodynamic vs humanistic approaches

Psychodynamic focuses on childhood and urges while Humanistic focuses on growth an potential

Reciprocal determinism

Albert Bandura - states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.

Self esteem

Your feelings of self woth

Self efficacy

Your belief in your ability

Self concept

Thoughts and feelings that answer who am I

Factors making up reciprocal determinism

Behaviors + environmental factors + internal cognitions

Traits

Enduring characteristics. These are consistent, predictable, and stable

The big 5 personality traits

Extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness (OCEAN/CANOE)

Trait theory of personality

Everyone has different levels of the same 5 traits.

Drive reduction theory of motivation

Generally, we are only motivated because we don’t have what we want (in a state of imbalance) Think of it as homeostasis

Optimal Arousal Theory

We have a just right point for arousal (think of Goldilocks) Graph of this is an inverted parabola

Yerkes-Dodson Theory

The more aroused we are, the dumber we are (say dumb things in arguments, mind goes blank while giving a presentation)

Fixed action patterns

Certain behavior patterns are innate, bred into animals through eons of evolution

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from within. Its not empirical and cant be easily measured, usually emotional

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from outside factors (ex money), emperical and can be easily measured, can be primary/secondary reinforcers

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts theory

Approach-approach conflict, Approach avoidance conflict, avoidance conflict

Approach-Approach Conflict

Wanting two things but only being able to have one. You have to miss out on something

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Wanting something but alos not wanting it or not wanting a part of it

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Not wanting either choice, having to pick the lesser of two evils

Ghrelin

Associated with being hungry, released by the stomach to stimulate appetite. Ghrelin makes your stomach go ghrrr

Leptin

Associated with being full, released by the intestine and seems to stop hunger