Approaches

What is the behaviourist approach?

only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and managed - mantain control +relied on lab studies - believe all behaviour is learned and babies are blank slates - only interested in studying behaviour that can be measured rather than mental processes - experiments best way - often used animals since assumption that basic processes in learning are the same

What do behaviourists believe are the two ways we learn?

classic and operant conditioning

What is classic conditioning?

behaviour learned from association - occurs when two stimuli repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus and new neutral stimulus which eventually produces same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
components include unconditional stimulus which causes an unconditional response
neutral stimulus which turns into conditional stimulus which causes a conditional response which is the same as an unconditional response

Who demonstrated classic conditioning?

Pavlov - showed how dogs could salivate at the sound of a bell if sound repeatedly presented at same time as food - means dogs learnt to associate sound of bell with food and produce saliva at the sound of the bell - able to show how a neutral stimulus can cause a learned response through association

What is operant conditioning?

form of learning where behaviour is shaped + mantained by its consequences - shaped through reinforcement suggesting behaviour is influenced by consequences of our actions 
positive reinforcement - behaviour is rewarded with something pleasant (eg praise)
negative reinforcement - avoid/stops something unpleasant so outcome positive experience - eg student giving homework in on time to not be told off 
punishment - unpleasant consequence of behaviour (eg teacher shouting when talking)
positive + negative reinforcement increases likelihood behaviour will be repeated - punishment decreases likelihodd behaviour will be repeated 

Who demonstarted operant conditioning?

Skinner - used boxes to train rats to respond to lights + learned how to receive foods or avoid electric shocks - timed how long rats took to push a lever then used postive reinforcement with food + tested negative reinforcement by stopping an unpleasant noise when lever pressed - complex patterns were taught eg press lever when signal given to avoid electric shock
different reinforcement schedules can be used: continuos is least effective as behaviour will extinguish quickly if reward interupted
variable ratio most resistant to extinction - involves reinforcement occuring after different amounts 

What is evaluation point 1 of conditioning / behavioural approaches?

based on well controlled research - focuses on measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings - lots of empirical evidence (scientific data - influencial + convincing) - breaks down into basic stimulus-response units where other extraneuos variables where removed allowing cause + effect relationship be established - able to clearly demonstrate scientific crediblity

What is the counter point of 1?

may have oversimplified learning process by reducing behaviour to simple components may ignore important influence on learning such as SLT + cognitive approach - called environmental reductionism as not machines + does not explain why associations are made

What is evaluation point 2 of conditioning / behavioural approaches?

strength of b approach is principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world problems - eg treatment for phobias + token economy systems used in prisons - increases value of approach because has widespread application 

What is evaluation point 3 of conditioning / behavioural approaches?

limitation is sees all behaviour as conditioned by past experiences - Skinner suggests everything sum total of our reinforcement history - believes our past conditioning determines the outcome of our descions - ignores any possible influence of free will on behaviour and an illusion - extreme postion + ignores influence of consious decision making process on behaviour 
pros - can remove blame
cons - disempowering

What is spare evaluation points of conditioning / behavioural approaches?

involved animals which we cannot always generalise to humans as have have higher order thinking skills
emphasis on objective measurements increase status as a science 

What are the short differences between classic and operant conditioning?

c - response is involuntary where o is voluntary
c - explains acquisition of response where o is maintenance of response 
c - learning through association between two stimuli where o is learning association between response and consequence

What is social learning theory?

development of behaviourist approach but argued c + o conditioning couldn’t explain all learning - there are important processes that mediate between stimulus and response - we learn through observation and imitation of others 

How does SLT suggest we learn?

observers imitate the behaviour of those we wish to be like known as identification (associate themselves with role model and wants to be like them) - person exhibiting behaviour is a role model - person copying is modelling - more likely to copy those who are most like us or we most admire - more likely to be imitated if seen to be rewarded known as vicarious reinforcement where reward not directly recieved but witnessed

What are mediational processes?

‘bridge’ between behaviourist theory + cognitive approach as focuse on cognitive factors are involved in learning which mediate the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired

What are and explain the four mediational processes?

attention - the extent to which we notice the behaviour
retention - how well the behaviour is remembered 
motor reproduction - the ability we have to reproduce behaviour
motivation - the will to reproduce the behaviour which may be affected by whether it was rewarded or punished 
first 2 relate to learning of behaviour + last 2 relate to performance of behaviour + unlike conditioning learning + performance do not have to happen at the same time but can be stored and reproduced later 

What is the Bobo Doll study?

some children see model behaving aggressively to the doll others see non-aggressive behaviour (either live or film) - children shown toys cannot play with to create frustration - all then taken to room with Bobo Doll behaviour was observed and recorded - many who witnessed aggression reproduced it + almost no aggression from the other children - behaviour more likely to be reproduced if model was rewarded 

What is evaluation point 1 of social learning theory?

strength of SLT approach is that it recognises cognitive factors in learning - neither conditioning can offer adequate account of learning on their own - humans store information about behaviour of others and use it to make judgements about when its appropriate to perform certain actions - suggests that SLT provides more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising mediational processes

What is the counter evaluation point 1 of social learning theory?

despite this has been criticised for making too little refrence to influence of biological factors - thought learning was determind by the environment - however recent research suggests observational learning may result of mirror neurons in the brain which allows us to imitate other people - suggests biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised by SLT

What is evaluation point 2 of social learning theory?

limitation of SLT is evidence was gathered through lab studies - Banduras ideas were developed through young children behaviour in labs so lacks external validity - children could have been responding to what they thought they were supposed to do as doll made for striking (demand characteristics) - strange environment + must have been confused by researcher showing no reaction to aggressive behaviour - suggests research may tell us little about how children actualy learn aggression 

What is evaluation point 3 of social learning theory?

strength has been applied to to range of real-world behaviours - able to explain cultural differences as SLT principles of imitation + modelling can account for how children learn from others + explains how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies - useful in range of behaviours eg how children come to understand their gender roles - increases the value of SLT as accounts for real-world behaviour 

What is summary evaluation points of social learning theory?

Bandura emphaises reciprocal determinism in sense we are influenced by our environment bu we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to peform - suggests some freewill unlike behaviourists
ignores role of biology - boys consistently more aggressive but Bandura suggests girls socialised to be less violent 
cognitive processes have to be inferred + harder to show how we observe abstract processes such as morals  

What is the cognitive approach?

developed in the 50s as a response of behaviourists failure to acknowledge mental processes + computer gave them a metaphor for describing mental processes - argue internal mental processes should be studied - investigated areas such as memory,perception + problem solving - studyed indirectly by making inferences about what is going on in peoples mind 

What are the basic assumptions of the cognitive model?

behaviour due influence of our cognitions which act as mediators between stimulus + response - we have automatic thoughts which guide all processes - measured by observing and measuring behaviour produced - inferences (conclusions reached on basis of evidence + reasoning) do have to made - eg brain scans depressed people to faces Beevers et al

What are schema?

scripts that allow us to reduce cognitive processing - they form readymade expectations which arise from personal experience + can be resistant to change - assumption we build to help us interpret the world + prevent us becoming overwhelmed - when younger born with simple motor schema such as sucking + grasping whereas when older schema are more detailed such as what happens in a restaurants

What are the pros and cons for schema?

pros - able to make predicitons - reduce amount of processing info providing a short cut so we can make descions quicker
cons - causes memories to alter as we ignore info that doesn’t fit - can lead to inappropriate stereotypes 

What does the cognitive approach use to explain and make inferences about mental processes?

use models - assume we can represent mental processing using diagrams + analogies with computers 
theoretical model includes: information processing approach - information flows through a system sequentially as it does through a flow chart eg multi-store model - based on way a computer would function 
whereas computer models involves actually programming to see if instructions produce similar output to humans 

What does the cognitive approach also involve?

making inferences - use models to help them understand internal mental processes as mental processes are private + cannot be directly observed so study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside someones mind based on their behaviour

What is evaluation point 1 of cognitive approach?

strength is uses objective scientific methods - employ highly controlled + rigorous methods of study so researches able to infer cognitive processes at work - involves use of lab studies to produce controlled,objective data - in addition cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology + cognitive psychology to come together to enhance scientific basis of study - meaning study has has a credible scientific basis 

What is the counter evaluation point 1 of cognitive approach?

as relies on inferences of mental processes rather than direct observations of behaviour it can sometimes suffer from being too abstract + theoretical in nature - similarly research studies often carried out using artificial stimuli (such as tests for memory involving word lists) that may not represent everyday experience 0 therfore research may lack external validity

What is evaluation point 2 of cognitive approach?

another strength is that it provides a framework for understanding + offering effective treatment for depression - Becks cognitive approach to treating depression based on negative triad which concerns an individuals view on the world,the future and the self - depression may occur if a person has a negative view of these 3 cognitive elements - therfore a way to treat depression is to challenge these negative thoughts (cognitions) by asking for evidence - eventually will have positive impact on persons expectation + subsequent behaviour - NICE strongly recommends CBT as first line treatment for depression in the UK - supports the value of cognitive approach

What is evaluation point 3 of cognitive approach?

a limitation of approach is based on machine reductionism - similarities between human mind + ‘thinking machines’ such as computers - however the computer analogy has been criticised as ignores influence of human emotion + motivation on cognitive system + how this may negatively affect our ability to process information - research has found human memory can be affected by emotional factors such as influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses - suggests that machine reductionism may weaken validity of cognitive approach (may help us understand how we process info but not why)

What are the spare evaluation points of the cognitive approach?

behaviourists would view as unscientific as processes cannot be monitored only inferredso is subjective howether use of technology has reduced this but still only see what areas of brain active not what thought is produced 
approach founded on soft determinism ie human behaviour may be determined by internal + external factors but we can also exert our freewill at times opposite to behaviourist hard determinism - allows for idea of control as recognises we cna think before we act as gap between stimulus + response

What is the biological approach and assumptions?

percpective that emphasises importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance + neutral function - key assumption is all behaviour is driven by our biology/inherited genes + evolutionary instincts- suggests everything psychological (personality,intelligence + disorders) is at first biological - thus to fully understand human behaviour we must study biological processes

What is the genetic basis of behaviour+ how is this studied?

psychological characteristics such as intelligence may be inherited in the same way as height or eye colours
twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis - achieved by analysing concordance rates - the extent which twins share the same characteristics

What can be concluded from twin studies?

if characterisitic are genetic would expect all identical MZ twins to be the same as they share 100% of DNA whereas non-identical DZ twins share 50% of DNA so would expect lower concordance - assumed twins share the same environment - if rates are similar between both types of twins then behaviour is likely to be environmental (as a result the way we are nurtured) - if rates higher in MZ twins suggests genetic influence (result of nature)

What is genotype and phenotype?

genotype - set of genes we inherit from our parents
phenotype - product of the interaction between genotype and the environment
despite MZ having the same genotype the way genes are physically + behaviourly expressed can differ - suggesting human behaviour depends upon interaction between inherited factors (nature) + the environment (nurture)

What is evolution and behaviour?

behaviours that help surivival and reproduction are adaptive and more likely to passed on - eg aggression may increase access to resources + females - these genes will be passed on and behaviour continues in next generation

What are biological structures?

refers to any physical part or system in the body
nervous system including the brain can affect behaviour - damage to specfic areas of brain will lead to over or undereating
endocrine system can affect behaviour - high levels of melatonin can lead to depression

What is neurochemistry?

different parts of brain communicate by using chemicals called neurotransmitters - carry messages between nerve cells by crossing synapse (space between nerve cells) - correlational studies found relationship between levels of neurotransmitters + occurrence of psychological abnormalities (an imbalance is a possible cause for mental health conditions)
eg - too much dopamine > OCD
too little serotonin > depression - OCD - anorexia

What is cognitive neuroscience?

involves study of neurological structures,mechanisms + processes (nervous system) - enables identification of specific areas of brain as being responsible for specific cognitive processes or disorders - eg Brocas area > speech production - brain scans such as fMRI + PET scans have advanced process - demonstrating links between psychological disorders + specific areas of brain/chemical imbalance could help with development of therapies - allows cognitive + biological approaches to intergrate and look for a biological basis for thought leading to scientific credibility

What is evaluation point one of biological approach?

strength has real-world application - increased understanding of neurochemical processes in brain leads to use of psychoactive to treat mental health conditions - eg approach has promoted treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increases level of neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain which reduces depressive symptoms -meaning people maybe manage their symptoms + continue with everyday life

What is counter evaluation point one of biological approach?

antideressant drugs do not work for everyone - eg recent study by Cipriana et al 2018 compared 21 antidepressant drugs + found wide variety of effectiveness although most of drugs were more effective than placebo researches concluded effects of drug in general were mainly modest - challenges value of biological approach because it would claim that brain chemistry alone should explain depression

What is evaluation point two of biological approach?

limitation is the fact approach can be scientifically tested eg brain scans may not be fully objective - eg Bennett et al study involved a dead fish in a fMRI scanner + in several scans fish brain appeared active where false positives made it seem brain was changing - suggesting biological methods of research may lack validity 

What is evaluation point three of biological approach?

limitation of approach is deterministic - approach sees humans behaviour as governed by internal,genetic causes over which we have no control - problematic in crime where disempowering - suggests biological view often too simplistic + ignores the mediating effects of environment + may make people feel cannot control or change their behaviour

What is counter evaluation point three of biological approach?

however determinism can also be positive in removing stigma of psychological illness

What are the spare evaluation points of biological approach?

-ethical issues that may arise if we can identify genetic causes for disorders 
-can make advances in treatments if identify biological causes
-neurotransmitter imbalances can be seen as reductionist (too simplistic to see behaviour as only product of biology)

What is the psychodynamic model assumptions?

unconscious mind very important in determining our behaviour - not directly accessible which why people don’t often understand own behaviour - childhood experiences seen as very important - mental illness is psychological rather than physical in origin (not biological)

What is the role of the unconscious?

conscious - what we are aware of at particular moment
preconscious - memories we can bring in to conscious or that sometimes appear there (from unconscious) involuntary in Freudian slips (parapraxes)
unconscious - memories,instincts or desires that are too threatning to bring to conscious are held here - store of of biological drives and insticts - anxiety sometimes too powerful so pressure relieved in dreams (involves disgusing desires through symbols)

What is the first structure of personality?

Id - represents biological instincts and drives known as pleasure principle - only principle present at birth - gets what it wants + throughout life Id is entirely selfish + demands instant gratification of its needs

What is the second structure of personality?

Superego - represents moral standards of the culture an individual has been socialised + produces guilt when rules are broken known as morality principle - represents moral standards of same-gender parent + punishes the ego through guilt - develops at end of phallic stage (5 years old)

What is the third structure of personality?

ego - represents our conscious self - tries to balance needs of Id and Superego which are in conflict - requires compromise + delayed gratification known as reality principle - manages by developing defence mechanisms - develops around two years old when you can’t always get what you want 

What problems can occur with personality structure?

good psychological health we need a strong ego that mantains balance betweeb demands of Id and Superego - if Id is overdeveloped can lead to agression - if Superego is overdeveloped can lead to anxiety disorders

What are defence mechanisms?

help us to avoid issues which cause us pain - ego can feel overwhelmed when it has conflicting demands placed upon it creating feeling of anxiety + tries to defend itslef by distorting information into less threatening forms - regarded as psychologically unhealthy + used unconsciously - help manage conflict between Id and Superego

What are the three defence mechanisms?

repression - distressing events can be pushed out of the conscious mind + become part of unconsious
denial - involves conscious mind refusing to acknowledge reality + convincing itself there is no problem
displacement - feelings can be transferred from the object that is really causing the anxiety to something else which is less threatening

What are psychosexual developmental stages?

Freud claimed children development occurs in five psychosexual stages - each stage has a conflict that a child has to deal with before progressing to next stage - if these cannot be resolved (finding a way to need in healthy way) satisfy fixation occurs and carry behaviour through adult life 

What are the first two psychosexual developmental stages?

oral stage (0-1 years) - primary source of pleasure is sucking + biting - trust develops - consequences - oral fixation - smoking,biting nails + sarcastic + understimulation could lead to Bulimia nervosa or commitment issues
anal stage (1-3 years) - primary source of pleasure is anal region - pleasure from withholding + expelling faeces - consequences - overstimualtion anally retentive - may lead to obsessive,rigid behaviour - when parents used punishment + humiliation - understimulation anally expulsive - may lead to sloppy,disorganised behaviour - when parents used lots of praise so child in charge as environment depends on them

What is the middle psychosexual developmental stage?

Phallic stage - primary source of pleasure is genital area - during stage Oedipus complex is dealt with - believed boys sexually attracted to mother + view father as competition - fixation in this stage can lead to jealous + anxious adults - consequences phallic personality (narcissitic + reckless) - for girls Electra where experience sense of loss don’t have a penis meaning start desiring their fathers 

What are the last two psychosexual developmental stages?

latency stage (6-12 years) - sexual drives are suppressed as cognitive development prioritised - earlier conflicts repressed - anxiety of Oedipus/Electra complex resolved
genital stage (puberty onwards) - primary source of pleasure is heterosexual relationships - biological changes mean attraction now directed towards others - consequences of unresolved conflict - difficulting forming heterosexual relationship
when we feel threatened we can seek comfort from earlier stages by regressing

What is evaluation point 1 of psychodynamic approach?

strength is introduced idea of psychotherapy - Freud brought to world new form of therapy known as psychoanalysis which is first attempt of treating mental health conditions psychologically rather than physically - new therapy employed range of techniques designed to access unconscious such as dream analysis - claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with - forerunner to many modern-day talking therapies - shows value of approach in creating new approach to treatment

What is evaluation counter point 1 of psychodynamic approach?

although Freudian therapists claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses (disorders of nervous system) - psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate/harmful for those with more serious mental health eg schizophrenia - suggests Freudian therapy (and theory) may not apply to all mental health conditions

What is evaluation point 2 of psychodynamic approach?

strength is support from neuroimaging studies - although controversial + often regarded as unscientific it has received recent support from neuroscience - eg McCrory et al demonstrated childhood trauma is linked to changes in structure + function of prefrontal cortex + hippocampus - these areas of brain associated with development of emotional and behavioural problems as well as increased risks for psychiatric conditions - supports link between childhood experiences and adult personality which is one of the cornerstones of psychodynamic 

What is evaluation point 3 of psychodynamic approach?

limitation is much of approach untestable - Popper argued psychodynamic approach does not meet scientific criterion of falsification - not open to empirical testing + probability of being disproved - many of Freud’s concepts such as Id and Oedipus complex are said to occur at an unconscious level making them difficult to test - furthermore ideas based on subjective study of single individuals such as Little Hans which makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour - suggests that Freud theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than established fact

What are the spare evaluation points of psychodynamic approach?

over emphasis on sexual problems which may be less relevant in modern soceity
approach suggests much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflict where Freud believes no such thing as an accident as everything driven by unconscious forces - critics claim extreme view as dismisses any possible influence of free will