Criminology Chapter 2

Restorative Justice

Emphasizes mending the harm caused by criminal acts, meet in order to mediate the means of informal punishment

Intregate offenders back into the community, and for society to address victims harms and need, heals things

Critical Criminology

Law as an instrument of power by the wealthy to take advantage of the poor, discriminatory against the poor

Marginalization

Large portions of the population are forced to live in areas conductive to criminality as a result of an economic crisis caused by social and economic exclusion

Chicago School

Social forces functioning in urban zones generate crime

White Flight

Middle class caucasians fled urban areas after neighborhood disorganization, trapping many minorities in poverty due to companies and businesses leaving urban areas for the suburbs

Status Frustration

Since social conditions do not allow success legitimately, lower class youths experience culture conflict.

Allowing youth to join gangs, commit delinquency, and engage in deviant behaviors

Psychological Sociology

Studying human interactions and relationships, which emphasize such group dynamics, specifically socialization.

Individual relationships to social processes such as education, family interaction, ad peer interaction are the principal measures of understanding human behavior

Subterranean Values

Morally tinged influences that have become entrenched in the culture but are publicly condemned, such as ography, adultery, and binge drinking

Patriarchal Families

Fathers assume traditional role as breadwinners

Girls growing up in these households are socialized to fear legal sanctions more than are males, boys exhibit more delinquent behavior than their sisters

Egalitarian Families

Husband and wife sharing similar positions of power at home and in the workplace. Daughters obtain more freedom, more delinquency (15-25%)

Head Start Educational Programs

Intended to break the cycle of poverty by providing preschool to children of lower-class parents

37 million people

Direct Conditioning

When behavior is reinforced by either being rewarded or punished while interacting with others

Social Reaction Theory

Labelling theory, frequent societal response to individuals involved in crime or delinquency creates a label, which contributes to additional criminality

Neutralization Theory

Becoming a criminal is based on learning experiences, but potential delinquents master techniques, enabling them to drift between illegitimate and legitimate conduct

Social Bond Theory

Positive socialization creates bonds between individuals. All individuals arepotential law violators but kept under control because of their fear deviant behavior will harm relationships

Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief

Concentric Zone Theory

Distinct ecological areas had developed in the city, stable and significant differences in inter-zone crime rates

Transition zone with the highest

Containment Theory

Crime as the consequence of social pressures combined with inability to resist these pressures, push or pull relationship toward crime

Inner - spiritual, outer- strong connections

Differential Association Theory

Others transfer criminal values and promote crime

Criminal behavior is learned by association, expression of general needs and values, varies in frequency

Broken Window Theory

Physical and community deterioration leads to increased anxieties for physical safety and residential mobility surges

Criminals attached because it appears the residents don’t care about the community

Differential Opportunity Theory

Legitimate and illegitimate socially structures oppourtunities for success

All individuals within society share the same objectives of success, but those in the lower class have limited means of achieving the goals

Peacemaking Theory/Peacemaking Criminology

Sole purpose of criminology is to promote a just society. Poverty is a form of suffering which causes crime, so the CJ system must end suffering to eliminate crime

Power/Control Theory

Crime and delinquency rates are a function of class position and family functions

Parents replicate the relationships they hold in the workplace: position of supremacy at work goes to household

Anomie Theory

Social conditions and not personality at the heart of crime, high crime rates in low class and poverty explain crime

Disconnection between socially approved means of success and legitimate goals

Social Disorganization Theory

Various conditions within the urban environment that influence crime rates (Social control, family, establishment, schools). Break down in economically stressed areas and fail to provide social functions

General Strain Theory

Criminality is the direct result of negative emotions, causes crime in the absence of adequate mechanisms to deal with social relationships

Differential Reinforcement Theory

Criminality as a learned behavior that employs aspects of psychological learning theories as well. Reinforcement as normative conduct, needed for individuals to understand society

Social Control Theories

All individuals have potential to violate the law because society presents opportunities to violate laws

Concerned with the “why”, individuals obey laws as a result of certain behaviors being controlled by internal and external forces

Cultural Deviance Theories

Blends social disorganization and strain to explain how individuals in disadvantaged neighborhoods react to deprivation

Subcultures, what they stress

Subcultural Theory

Certain socialized cultural groups create crime. Values influence socialization of crime and deliquency, values differ from typical American vlaues

Critical Feminist Theory

Gender inequality due to the unequal power of men and women in a capitalist society is the core cause of crime

Institutional Anomie Theory

Antisocial behavior as a function of cultural and institutional influences in American Society. “American Dream” promotes economic success at al cost

Edwin Sutherland

Differential assosciation theory. First criminologist to view human behavior is learned.

Research on white collar crime, crime as the lower class

Travis Hirschi

Social bond theory: positive socialization creates bonds between individuals and social institutions or groups

Individuals vary in how they respond to conventional social rules and values

Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief

Lambert (Adolphe) Quetelet

Sociological criminology, used social data and statistics in criminological research, helping for demographic info

Seasons, climate, population, and poverty influence crime rates

Crime rates greatest in the summer, in the south, among the poor, uneducated, and alcohol

Steven Messner & Richard Rosenfeld

Institutional anomie, relatively high crime rates can be explained in the relationship between culture and institutions

Social welfare, because it limits the deprivation

Robert Merton

Concept of anomie involved a disconnection between socially approved means of success and legitimate goals

Legitimate goals for success as socioeconomic status, everyone socially adapts to life

Emilie Durkheim

Sociological criminology, crime as a normal and nessecary social event. Increasing crime for social change

Crime due to human suffering, which society must elevate in order to reduce crime. Crime as a result of tension within society

Anomie

Robert Agnew

Transformed strain theory into general strain theory, strain causes absence of adequate mechanisms to deal with social relations

Individuals who feel stress are more likely to comitt crime, six general propositions of general strain

Clifford Shaw & Mckay

Chicago school criminologist, wanted to develop environmental and health hazards in inner-city Chicago

Social disorganization theory, concentric zone theory

Crime and deliquency in urban enviorments as a result of ecological developement. Transitional neighborhoods

Edwin Lemert

Offenders initial act of deviance of primary deviance, and additional acts resulting from forced association with other offenders secondary deviance

Primary deviance triggers social penalties, secondary occurs creating even harsher penalties

John Hagan

Power/control theory, parents work experiences and class position influence the criminality of children

Ralph Dahrendorf

Marxist perespectie, created distinct versions of crime.

Modern society categorized into what he called imperatively coordinated associations (those who possess authority anf use it for social domination and those who lack authority are dominated”

Unified conflict theory of human behavior, believes every society is subject to socoail change, displays conflict, renders a contribution to its disintegration and change

Walter Reckless

Containment theory, wanted to understand why certain people in similar environments were immune to criminal temptations

Felt crime was the consequence of social pressures combined with the inability to resist these pressures, which presented a push or pull relationship to crime

Youth’s self image of being a good person and believed inner containment allowed for a positive self image

Thorsten Sellin

Research on culture conflict and crime, linking cultural adaptation to criminality and was first attempt to illustrate lower class culture

Criminal law is expression of the rules of dominant culture, basis for subcultural theory

Albert Cohen

Theory of delinquent subcultures, held the belief behaviors of the lower class youths is actually an objection against the norms, standards, and values

Society doesn’t allow for lower-class youth success, which causes status frusturation

Howard Becker

Labelling theory, labels permit an individual to become an outsider in society. Concept that society creates deviance and a deviant person by percieved responses to. behaviors

Challenges belief of deviant or criminal individuals, believed in the idea of moral entrepreneurs, individuals in group screate social rules

Individuals allow for interpretation of laws, norms, and rules

Karl Marx

Development of critical criminology, recognized financial structures within society and how they control human relations

Communist manifesto, oppressive labor conditions due to esclation of capitalism

Exploitation of the working class, crime was a product of law enforcement policies with the labelling process

George Vold

Marxist, created distinct version of crime

Politically oriented groups seek the government’s assistance to create laws and defend their rights to protect their interests

John Braithwaite

Crime, shame, and reintegration (reintegrative shaming)

Concept of shame can drastically impact because people will feel flawed

Donald Cressey

Furthered Sutherlands effort for DAT, nine principles:

Criminal behavior is learned. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others in a process of communication. 3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated and sometimes very simple, and (b) the specif-ic direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.

5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.

6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to law violation over definitions unfavorable to law violation.

7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal pat-terns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.

9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values because non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values

Gresham Sykes and David Matza

Neutralization/drift theory, criminal is based on learning experiences

Individuals drift between various behaviors on the basis of subterranean values

Robert Park

Chicago school founders, research concerned with urban life or social ecology, social forces functioning in urban zones generate crime

William Julius Wilson

Modern social disorganization, “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality, structural conditions which influence the culture in the urban community

Cultural disorganization can occur in these communities based on isolation, concentrated disadvantaged over time is related to violence, informal social controls must be strengthened

Gender & incarceration %

93% of inmates are male

Child abuse/neglect and future arrest %

Children who have experienced maltreatment before the age of 8 showed an increased sexualized behavior, resulted in greater delinquency by age 12

% of Single Mothers in America

86% of single parents

% Of being born into poverty and remaining poor as an adult

32% of children born into families remained poor as adults

Women in the workforce %

57%

Prisoners in North Korea and malnutrition %

40%

Offenders who cannot afford a lawyer %

80%

United States vs Gementera

Court ruled judges have statutory power to enact shaming of a form of rehabilitation

Criminal fathers and non-criminal fathers

8% with non, 37% with one become chronic offenders

Death penalty and race of the victim

75% of white offenders, but African Americans were 3x as likely to be sentenced

Inmates entering the criminal justice system that cannot afford an attorney

80% of people who enter the system, little savings to pay for lawyers

Delinquency and antisocial behavior

Higher rates alongside boys with low parental monitoring, parental behavior can increase/decrease risk

Child maltreatment and lasting results

Depression, suicide attempts, substance abuse, and self injurious behaviors

Peer pressure and delinquency

Socializing with deviant people have a greater risk, powerful force

Seek out similar peers, and select them out of necessity. Not fearing consequences

Major cause, attachment to peers, peer approval, lack of parental monitoring

Displaying inmate income prior to incarceration

Poor

IGNORE

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number of people who live below the poverty line in America

13 million children live in households which are considered below the poverty line

Subdivisions of social structure theories

Social disorganization, strain, and cultural deviance theories

Different branches of social learning theories

Differential association, differential reinforcement, and neutralization theory

Self-stigma and delinquency or crime

Occurs when negative attitudes are internalized, harming a person’s self-esteem, and inducing shame

Assumptions of all strain theories

Crime as a form of problem-solving behavior committed in response to frustration and additional environmental factors

Divisions between the rich and poor create an environment of resentment and mistrust

Structural vs individual strain

Economic and social sources shape collective human behavior versus life experiences causing pain and misery, feelings translated to antisocial behaviors

Diversion programs and social reaction theory

Only young, non-violent, first time offenders successfully complete, whereas ineffective for chronic/violent offenders

Successful programs must be used on certain types of offenders

The core premise of the neutralization theory

Process of becoming a criminal is based on learning experiences

Deny responsibility, injury, victim, condemn condemners, and appeal to higher loyalties

Critiques of critical criminology

Unfairly targets the capitalistic system which helps the poor because of social welfare and charity

CJ system takes steps to regulate the system (police) theft from the rich is not a form of survival

Refuse to address real problems in communist countries, critical criminology involves radical left wing ideas

Concept of the American Dream

Material goods and wealth

Globalization and critical criminology

Replaced imperialism and colonization as a new form of domination by Westerns

Increased wage gap by benefiting the powerful, allowed both offenders and organizations to gain power while lowering the risk of arrests

Surplus value in America

Capitalistic countries (Japan) and crime

Lower crime rates compared with other countries

Average age of children joining gangs in the US

13&14

Attachment and reducing delinquency

Poor one to parents is linked as it impacts school performance, antisocial behavior

Number of gangs in the US

33,000

Robert Merton categories of adaptation

Conformity: Embrace both conventional social goals and means + & +

Innovation: Embrace goals, reject means

Ritualism: Reject goals, accept means

Retreats: Reject both goals and means

Rebellion: Substituting an alternate set of goals and means for conventional ones

Elements of the social bond theory

Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief

Techniques of neutralization

Deny responsibility

Deny injury

Deny the victim

Condemn Condemners

Appeal to higher loyalties

Indications of social disorganization

High unemployment, elevated school dropout rates, deteriorated housing, low-income levels, residential mobility, and large numbers of single-parent households

Unchecked capitalism and critical thought

In developing nations, benefits wealthy people and powerful establishments

Critiques of neutralization theory

Concept does not explain chronic crime within society, doesn’t always factor the motive as primary means to commit an illegal act

Doesn’t go in-depth how techniques are transferred

Critiques of differential association theory

Why do certain youth who are exposed to excess definitions favorable to the law still commit acs of crime

Challenges idea of excess definitions unfavorable to the law doesn’t explain how values are developed

Social process theories influence on the juvenile justice system

Diversion programs and rehabilitation

Counties violating basic human rights

Iran, North Korea, Cuba, China, etc

Female sexualization and socialization

Sexual victimization of girls is a product of male socialization, since many young men learn to be aggressive, they turn to exploit women

80% of runaway females

Chinese intellectual property

Theft costs American $255 billion-$600 billion. Government aware but chooses not to intervene, wealthy individuals linked to the government owning sweatshops and exploiting workers

Number of lost manufacturing jobs to cheap labor and relaxed regulations

5 million

Concept of shame

Can drastically impact individuals because the person will feel flawed

Basic premise of social structure theories

Socially and economically disadvantaged groups are at the center of crime

Basis of most critical/social conflict theorists thoughts

Reject the notion that laws are designed to maintain a fair and balanced society. Law as instrument of power by the wealthy