Attachment (AQA AS-Level Psychology)

Outline Lorenz’ research into attachment

Lorenz 1935 used geese to investigate imprinting. He separated a clutch of goose eggs and raised half in an incubator and half with the mother. When goslings were older, he released all of them, each ran to respective mother figure, suggesting imprinting occurred on the first moving object seen after hatching (within the critical period <25hrs).

Outline Harlow’s research into attachment

Harlow 1959 used rhesus monkeys to investigate contact comfort. The monkeys were presented with 2 surrogate mothers (1 cloth, 1 wire providing food). They spent the majority of their time with the cloth mother (18hrs) and less time with wire mother (1hr), only choosing to go to it when they required food.
When introduced to a fear stimulus, monkeys would cower if the wire mother was present, but braver with cloth mother. When introduced to foreign objects, showed secure base behaviour with cloth but cower, no exploration with wire. Suggests comfort is more important than food in forming an attachment bond.

Evaluate animal research into attachment

-  Animal studies so low generalisability to humans, humans do not imprint, but do have critical period, and need comfort.

- Harlow’s study had ethical issues, monkeys grew up in isolation and showed irreversible consequences e.g. aggression, irregular social behaviours, and becoming bad mothers themselves.

+ Howe states knowledge from Harlow has helped social workers understand risk factors in neglect and abuse and can help prevent it occurring.

Describe learning theory as an explanation of attachment

Dollard and Miller 1950 – cupboard love, importance of food. Classical conditioning to acquire an attachment, operant conditioning to maintain an attachment.

Classical: UCS (food) -> UCR (pleasure). NS (caregiver) -> no response. UCS + NS -> UCR. Repeat. NS (caregiver) -> CR (pleasure). = attachment.
Operant: baby cries when hungry (primary drive), so to remove unpleasant noise of crying (negative reinforcement), the caregiver (secondary reinforcer) feeds baby (primary reinforcer), who experiences the loss of hunger ( - reinforcement) = attachment (secondary drive).

Evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment

- Bowlby’s evolutionary theory offers an alternate explanation, that attachment is a survival mechanism for food and protection, not a learned behaviour through conditioning.

– Harlow’s monkey study showed that they prefer the cloth mother over the wire mother, suggesting infants crave comfort and nurture rather than just food.

+ Reductionistic, oversimplifies complex human attachment bonds to simple stimulus response explanations, it ignores the complexity of human bonds.

Outline Bowlby’s monotropic theory as an explanation of attachment

Bowlby proposed in his evolutionary theory that attachment is a survival mechanism, forming an attachment bond to a primary caregiver for food and protection, to increase survivability. Babies use social releasers to prompt contact, suggesting it is an active process.

For secure attachment, Bowlby proposed the law of accumulated separation (every absence from the mother adds up) and the law of continuity (children need consistent and stable care). Within the critical period (6 months to 2 ½ years).

Internal working model – a mental blueprint for all future relationships based off the first attachment bond. This will affect the child own parenting style later in life.

Evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory as an explanation of attachment

- Social sensitivity, puts lots of responsibility on the mother and ignores/underestimates the role of the father, encourages maternity leave and criticises childcare services.

+ Bailey et al 2007, 99 mothers with babies, interviewed them and assessed their attachment types to their own mothers and also to their children. There was a correlation between attachment to own mother and child, supporting internal working model.

Describe the Strange Situation as a way of assessing attachment types

The SS was conducted by Ainsworth in 1971, it was a controlled lab study, using time sampling every 3 minutes. Assessed attachment type by observing reactions to: stranger and separation anxiety, exploration, proximity seeking and response to reunion.

Ainsworth found 3 attachment types:
Secure (moderate separation anxiety, secure base behaviour, and easily comforted when reunited).
Insecure resistant (very high separation and stranger anxiety, low exploration, seek and reject when reunited).
Insecure avoidant (very low stranger anxiety, high exploration, refuse comfort when reunited).

Evaluate the Strange Situation as a way of assessing attachment types

- Lacks ecological validity, lab mimics a playroom, artificial and unfamiliar environment may make the child anxious and alter natural behaviours
+ However, acclimation phase settles child into the environment to minimise this effect.

– Cultural bias, Western ideals, Eurocentric, Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg 1988 meta-analysis found 35% avoidant in Germany, 29% resistant in Israel, due to different values and child-rearing practices, cannot generalise between cultures.

Outline research into cultural variations of attachment

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg 1988 conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies from 8 different countries that all used Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
Secure was most common attachment type across all countries. Secure most common in Britain (75%). Insecure avoidant more common in Germany (35%). Insecure resistant more common in Israel (29%).
Individualistic vs collectivist cultures.

Evaluate research into cultural variations of attachment

- Strange situation was American, cultural bias, Western, ethnocentricity.

+ High reliability, standardised procedure, has been replicated.

– Bowlby’s monotropic theory offers a globally relevant explanation (attachment is an evolutionary mechanism and is therefore universally valid).

Outline Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

If a child experiences maternal deprivation (loss of emotional care from a primary caregiver) within their critical period (before 2 ½ years), they may experience irreversible intellectual and emotional consequences (e.g. affectionless psychopathy).

Bowlby’s 44 thieves 1944, 44 juvenile thieves and 44 controls. Interviewed child and parents. More than ½ of the juvenile thieves had experienced a period of separation (of more than 6 months) from their primary caregiver within the first 5 years of their lives. 32% of the thieves showed affectionless psychopathy, none of the control group were affectionless psychopaths.

Evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

+ Bowlby’s 44 thieves is supporting evidence. BUT…
– Lewis 1944 replicated 44 thieves study and did not find early deprivation predicted criminal behaviour, possible investigator effects from Bowlby.

+ Application to hospital stays for mother or infant together to prevent accumulated separation.

Outline the effects of institutionalisation

Low IQ, disinhibited attachment, difficulty making friends,

In 1998, Rutter conducted a longitudinal study to observe long-term effects of institutionalisation. 165 Romanian orphans (111 adopted before 2, 54 adopted before 4) compared to control group of British children (adopted before 6 months old). Development studied at intervals. Developed at different rates in relation to age of adoption, those adopted within the critical period did not show as many consequences. Before 6 months = 102 IQ. After 2 years = 77 IQ. Disinhibited attachment (no stranger anxiety, clingy and attention seeking from anyone).

Evaluate research into the effects of institutionalisation

+ Rutter’s longitudinal study shows long term consequences of institutionalisation.

+ Application improved orphanage conditions and foster care.

– Cannot generalise to all children who have been institutionalised, only to those who experience poor institutional care.

– Deprivation is only 1 factor in development, were also malnourished with no mental stimulation, correlation not causation because of other variables affecting development.

Outline research into the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships

Bowlby’s proposed internal working model states early attachment provides a template for future relationships.

Bailey 2007 found a relationship between early attachment type and parenting style, 99 mothers/infants assessed with the strange situation and interviews, have same attachment type across 3 generations.

Hazan and Shaver 1987 found a link between early attachment and later romantic relationships. 620 participants answered the “love quiz”. They found securely attached individuals were more likely to have secure, stable, long-lasting relationships. Avoidant showed jealousy and fear of intimacy.

Evaluate research into the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships

Bailey:
- Small sample, 99 mothers, cannot generalise to the wider population.
- Questionable validity of self-report techniques, used retrospective recall of childhood memories, is an inaccurate method of judgement, demand characteristics, poor recall.

Hazan and Shaver:
- Volunteer sample from a newspaper that attracts a certain demographic.

-Opposing evidence, Koluchova found children can recover from deprivation and form effective adult relationships.