2025 Exam Review 1: Unit 0 & Unit 1 Biology

Credit to Mr. Idstein from St. Thomas More High School

Empiricism

view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Experimental Psychology

study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Behaviorism

view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-Nurture Issue

longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Levels of Analysis

differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Biopsychosocial Approach

integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Biological Psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic Pyschology

branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Social-Culture Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Human Factors Psychologists

an I/O subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treat people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Experimenter Bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

an descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Confirmation Bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors change together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.0 to +1.0).

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is suppose to

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Include measures of central tendency and measures of variability

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it

Skewed Distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

Normal Distribution. a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true to a population

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Culture

enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

deception

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on a general premise

inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

attrition

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be
determined only through an experimental research design

Biological Psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Refractory Period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Threshold

a level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-None Response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

a molecule (often a drug) that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a molecule (often a drug) that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor (efferent) Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.